,\ ^ SCJBNCB Gossm :>^HV., V H ARDWICKE'S science-Gossip 1889. HARDWICKE'S cietu:^=Ol0Ssi^: AN ILLUSTRATED MEDIUM OF INTERCHANGE AND GOSSIP FOR STUDENTS AND LOVERS OF NATURE. EDITED BY Dr. J. E. TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.I., HON. MEMBER OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY CLUB, OF THE NORWICH GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, OF THE MARYPORT SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, OF THE ROTHERHAM LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, OF THE NORWICH SCIENCE-GOSSIP CLUB, OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AUSTRALASIA, OF THE VICTORIAN FIELD NATURALISTS* CLUB, ETC. ETC. VOLUME XXY. Uontion ; CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY. 1889. [A// rights reserved.^ LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. j 0 L 0 d PREFACE. THE present is the Twenty-fifth Annual Volume of our Magazine. There is no other magazine of popular science which equals the record. A quarter of a century is a long period in the history of magazine literature. It beholds the rise and fall and keen com- petition of many rivals. The law of the " Survival of the Fittest " is as true among literary and scientific competitors as in the world of living things. What an enormous advance Science has made within the period comprehended by the lifetime of SCIENCE-GOSSIP ! There is, perhaps, no previous quarter of a century equal to it in the whole history of scientific research. Our past volumes record this progress — all the more faithfully because it was recorded almost unconscious of the fact that an act of evolution was going on. Perhaps one of the most striking features in the scientific history of the last twenty-five years is its increased democratic character. It belongs to the people, without any reference to rank, wealth, or influence. For years, in our columns, peers and peasants have discussed natural history subjects on common and equal ground. Science has sprung from the people, and belongs to the people. Apart from its increasing national economic importance, it is one of their chief intellectual delights. For one person who cared enough about the multitudinous objects of nature to enquire into them a quarter of a century ago, there are at least ten now. It has always been our aim to meet this growing and spreading love of Science among those who follow it for the love of it. On PREFACE. this account, from time to time, we have included new subjects of research and study. Next year we propose devoting a special department to PHOTO- GRAPHY. That charming branch of amateur and holiday science is capable of much good service in the cause of natural history. Photo-micrography is already an adjunct of microscopical research ; and its splendid adaptation to the lantern for lecturing purposes is admitted by all who have taken advantage of it. Photography has many a little side path unentered. If it only gave artists real studies of plants for use in their foregrounds, rocks and trees for their landscapes, and clouds for their skies, and thus abolished the conventional kinds hitherto in use — it would be a great gain to Art. We therefore cordially invite our readers to assist us in forming and carrying on each month a Department devoted to Photography, especially so far as the latter affects Natural Science. It is cheering to the Editor to receive from time to time the kindly encouragement and congratulations of contributors and sub- scribers. He asks all his allies to assist in making SciENCE-GossiP known among their friends. An increased circulation means increased efficiency. He is grateful for the kindly sympathy and help of the past year. The conduction of the journal brings him into contact with troops of friends, to each of whom he appeals for increased assistance. Perhaps the best evidence of the bibliographical value of SciENCE- GOSSIP is the fact that many of the back numbers of years ago are asked for at double the price they were published. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. i^CISTHSSUMBBLLA, l8o jEdogonium, 8i Ananchytes ovata, ii(j Anafickyies ovaia, Flint cast of, 227 Animalcules from Scum, 204 Antlers, Growth of, 29 Bass, The, 61 Bass, Head of, 62 Bonnet-Monkey, 85 Boxes for Slides, 244 Cage for Marmosets, etc., 185 Cinnamon, The, 149 Coca, 130 Diagram showing the Nuclear Divj. SIGN, 203 Discorbina Globularis, 38 Distyla Fltxilis, 267 Eel, Vinegar, 52 Egg of Succinea Pfeifferi, aot Flower of Coca, 148 Fly-catcher, Spotted, 197 Foramlnifera, 12 Formica Ru/a, Home of, 198 Fossil Fresh-water Shells, 57 Galerites Albogalerus, 229 Garcinia Mangostana, 177 Ginger Plant, 250 Globba Bulbi/era, 274 Helix Hortensis, Hermaphrodite Gland of, 201 Holotkuria Bohadsckia, Eggs of, 203 Karyokinesis, 202 LoFODEN Isles, 225 Luton, Chalk on road at, 228 Luton, Lane at, 228 Luton, Pit at, 228 Manihot Utilissinta, iix Marigold, Double, 253 Micraster, 229 Microscope, accessories to, 133.134 Monkey-nuts, 157 Monkey, Pole and Barrel for, 157 Mounting Clips, pressureless, 271 Nutmeg, 220 Organisms in Chemical Solutions, 128 Paraguay Tea, 151 Parasmilia Centralis, 229 Peneroplts, 36 Peregrine Falcon, 113 Philodina Tubercnlaia, 266 Plan of Melbourne Botanic Gardens, 100 Polysiomella Crispa, 36 Pterodina triincata, 104 Puffin, 112 Rana, Lungs of, 252 Rotalia, 38 Rotifer, A, 164 Rotifer, Curious, 154 Rotifers, Little-known, 104 Salvadora Persica, 274 Schizanthus Pinnati/olius, 172 Shark's Teeth, on Mounting, 80 Stephanops Intermedius, 179 Strychnos nux Vomica, 176 Tetractinellid Spicules, 229 Trichodina Mitra, 125 Ventriculitk, 228 Water-rat, Parasite of, 6 White Ants, 76 Wood Ants, 32 Worm, Turbellarian, 204 RUDIMENTS AND THE IDEAL FORM. By NINA F. LAYARD. N reply to two papers in the October issue of SciENCE- GossiF, referring to my articles on "Rudimentary Organs," I will first notice Dr, William Smith's explanation of the word " rudimen- tary," as quoted l,y Mr. A. H. Swinton, though it does not mate- lially differ from the meanings given by other good lexicograph- ers. He says : "It is derived from the Latin adjective ntdis, in a natural state, not improved by art," &c. As a natural state is, according to Dr. Webster, a "normal " state, and a normal state is one in which the organ "performs its proper functions," this appears to disallow Mr. Darwin's expressed explana- tion of his own use of the word in a letter to C. Lyell, 1859. "An organ," he says, " should not be called rudimentary, unless it be useless." This characteris- tic he proceeds to contrast with that of a nascent organ, "which though little developed, as it has to be developed, must be useful," &c. Notwithstanding, however, the. assertion, that that which is properly called "rudimentary" is incapable of development, we find an instance in the " Descent of Man," in which the author has himself accidentally fallen into the generally accepted use of the word. Explaining the first attempts of birds to sing, he says, "Their first essays show hardly a rudiment of the future song." * He also, without comment, quotes ■• "Descent of Man," p. 86. No. 289. — January 1889. Professor Wyman, and speaks of " rudimentary legs " in the human embryo.* In the letter quoted by Mr. Swinton, the following expression occurs : "Natural selection cannot jDOssibly make a useless or rudimentary organ." How is this to be reconciled with another statement in the " Descent of Man " ? p. 25. Treating of the existence of rudimentary organs, Mr. Darwin says: "They became greatly reduced, either from simple disuse, or through the natural selection of individuals," &c. With reference to Mr. Tansley's paper, I am sorry that he should suppose that 1 purposely ignored the instance of the " os coccyx " brought forward by him in his article of August last. He there asks : " What ' quality ' does Miss Layard find in the ' os coccyx ' to compensate for the ' quantity ' in the tail ? And how can a structure, i.e. which is so degenerated as to have no function at all, be ' more perfect ' than one which in many cases has distinct functions " ? To this I would reply : In the first place, it is not a fact that the os coccyx has " no function at all." It is perfectly adapted to its function, which is to " give attachment to certain muscles." Of this Darwin was aware, though he still chose to call it a "rudimentary tail." f When we consider the difference of man's posture from that of the beasts, the former being erect, the latter quadrupedal, we may, perhaps, regard the tail as a necessary protection, which the improved structure no longer required. I am not aware that this solution has been put for- ward, but it appears a very simple and natural one ; in which case the tail, far from being the " typical standard " of a now debased organ, would rather suggest a mark of servitude, and stamp its wearer as of lower origin. Mr. Tansley is perfectly justified in pinning me to the second consideration, which I am most certainly responsible for starting, namely, as to the claim of the human creature, from one point of view, to be regarded * " Descent of Man," p. 11. t ' Letter to C Lyell,' October 11, 1859. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. as an "ideal form," but while I am ready to defend my position on the ground first taken up by me, it is fair that my original meaning should be clearly under- stood. In my first article, I said : "According to the theory of development, it has taken untold ages of evolution advancing by gradations infinitely minute, to produce at length the ideal human form." This sentence Mr. Tansley omitted to quote, though he proceeded to challenge the following sentence which succeeded it : " allowing, as we must, man's to be the ideal form." I think it is sufficiently clear that my object was to meet the evolutionist on his own ground. This I explained more fully in my second article, in the following sentence: "arguing upon evolution grounds, we are bound to look upon anything lower than the ideal form as an arrested development ; and for the sake of the argument I adopted that position." In my third article, March, iS88, I again repeated that "arguing on evolution ground only," should I use such terms as " excrescences and deficiencies, with regard to organs in the lower animals," and concluded my paper by saying : " To the non-evolutionist every group is perfect in its kind, and for its environment." This I repeated again in my last article. But while I wish it to be understood that I am Hot pressing for a linear classification, there are higher and lower morphological types which make a philosophical classification necessary, and I have the authority of Agassiz for placing man at the head of this classification. He says, "It is evident that there is a manifest progress in the succession of beings on the surface of the earth. This progress consists, &c., &c., among the vertebrata especially, in their increasing resemblance to man."* With regard to Mr. Tansley's objection to my use of the term "ideal form," I will again quote the same authority. Speaking of groups of animals, Agassiz says, " For each of these groups, whether larger or smaller, we involuntarily picture in our minds [an image made up of the traits which characterise the group. This ideal image is called a type, &c., &c. This image may correspond to some one member of the group, but it is rare that any one species embodies all our ideas of the class, family, or genus to which it belongs, &c., &c. It is common, however, to speak of the animal which embodies most fully the characters of a group, as the type of that group."t If then it is true that groups of organic beings in an ever-ascending scale have given place to "other and more perfect groups," which is the expression used by Darwin, and if in the most perfect group, man is found to embody most fully the characters of the group, we may surely in this sense regard him as the type, and describe him as the ideal image. ' * Agassiz and Gould's " Comparative Physiology," p. 417. f Agassiz and Gould's " Comparative Pnysiology." Intro- duction, p. XX. Mr. Tansley further says : "organs, &c., can only be considered more or less perfect in proportion as they are more or less able to perform the functions for which they were developed, and that, therefore, no organism can be said to be ' ideal ' unless every one of its organs performs its function more com- pletely than any corresponding ones throughout organic nature." If this be the only legitimate way of comparing organs and organisms, the rule should certainly hold good with regard to groups of organic beings ; but is this Mr. Darwin's meaning of the expression "more perfect " when alluding to them ? Does he mean "groups of organic beings better able to perform the functions for which they were developed " ? If so, this is a contradiction of Mr. Fenn's state- ment in the November number of Science-Gossip, 1887, that "all animals are as perfect as man, and as admirably adapted to their surroundings." Again, Mr. Darwin speaks of man as "the wonder and glory of the universe."* If he judged of him simply "in relation to his environment," as Mr. Tansley would insist, why should he use such an expression regarding man rather than any of the lower animals ? It is very evident, I think, that he recognised in him, the type, or ideal image, of the most perfect group, " standing," as Dr. Nicholson expresses it in his " Manual of Zoology," "at the top of the whole animal kingdom. "f This is hardly stronger language than that used by me in my first article, when I spoke of man as the "last triumph of creative power." Mr. Tansley's view of the operation of Natural Selection is that it "ultimately consists in the action of certain purely mechanical environing agencies on the organism," and is not the result of " the opera- tion of an intelligent agency." This is hardly in accordance with the following statement of Mr. Darwin's. He says: "We can only say that it has so pleased the Creator to com- mand that the past and present inhabitants of the world should appear in a certain order, &c., &c., that He has impressed on them the most extra- ordinary resemblance, and has classed them in groups subordinate to groups. "$ Mr. Tansley further adds "that the operation of an intelligent agency, would be entirely inconsistent with the operation of a factor like Natural Selection." I cannot reply to this better than by quoting the words of Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace, one of Mr. Darwin's ablest fellow-workers and followers, who, after combating in the earlier part of his argument, what he calls the " continual interference hypothesis," is forced by his observations of a certain class of phenomena relating to the development of man, to * " Descent of Man," p. 212. f " Manual of Zoo!.," p. 16. % "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i. p. 9. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the following confession. " The inference I would draw from this class of phenomena is, that a superior intelligence has guided the development of man in a definite direction and for a special purpose, &c., &c. We must therefore admit the possibility that, if we are not the highest intelligences in the universe, some higher intelligence may have directed the pro- cess by which the human race was developed ; by means of more subtle agencies than we are acquainted with." " At the same time I must confess, that this theory has the disadvantage of requiring the intervention of some distinct individual intelligence, to aid in the production of what we can hardly avoid considering as the ultimate aim and outcome of all organised existence — intellectual, ever-advancing, spiritual man. »>iit Whether this " controlling intelligence " was angel, archangel, spirit or demon, does not affect the question. It is enough for the purpose to know that this champion of Natural Selection discovered the necessity of recognising the operation of an "intelligent agency," directing the process of man's development, and was honest enough to admit it. Perhaps Mr. Tansley would agree with Mr. Wallace that "it is simply a question of how the Creator has worked," and not whether there exists an "inteUigent Creator"? If so, he is still in the company of Darwin, Wallace, and Dawson, names that may surely figure among " the prominent men of science of the day." If on the other -hand, such words as the fol- lowing are the sum and substance of Mr. Tansley's belief, "Natural Selection, &c., &c., ultimately consists in the action of certain purely mechanical environing agencies on the organism," then the question becomes one of supreme importance. Does Mr. Tansley see no difficulty in such a state- ment as that which I subjoin ? Speaking of the rhizopoda, Huxley says : " In the substance of many of these creatures, nothing is to be discerned but a mass of jelly, &c., &c. ; it is structureless and organ- less, and without definitely formed parts. Neverthe- less, &c., it can produce a shell : a structure in many cases, of extraordinary complexity and most singular beauty. That this particle of jelly is capable of guiding physical forces in such a manner as to give rise to those exquisite and almost mathematically- arranged structures— being itself structureless and without permanent distinction or operation of parts is, to my mind, a fact of the profouudest signifi- cance."! What this "profound significance" implies, the writer does not tell us, but to some minds it would not unnaturally necessitate the conception of an intelligent agent. * Wallace, " On Natural Selection," p. 360. + " Introduction to the Classification of Animals," Huxley pp. 10, II. With regard to my statement, that "an evolution of retrogression has been cheerfully accepted," and to which Mr. Tansley takes exception, I will refer him to a paper by T. in June 1888. In defence of the illustration used by me of " Mozart playing on a worn-out piano," though Mr. Tansley conceives it to be "singularly unhappy," and objects that the piano " cannot possibly be compared with an organism, which has infinite powers of adapting itself to changed conditions," he must remember that instead of speaking of the " os coccyx " as perfectly adapted to its present undoubted func- tion, he described it as "so degenerated as to have no function at all." In conclusion, I would thank Mr. Tansley for his last article, which has given a more clear and definite shape to the argument. HOW TO WORK WITH THE MICRO- GRAPHIC DICTIONARY. By W. J. Simmons. THE great value of the Micrographic Dictionary can only be realised by always having it at hand on the work-table, and by constantly referring to it. If used in this way it will soon prove itself to be something more than a mere work of reference. To enable students, and those whose leisure may be scanty, to work at the "Micrographic" from this standpoint, I venture to trespass on your space with a list of articles, the careful perusal of which, in the order I have given them, will repay the trouble of following my advice. It took me some little time to draw up the list ; and, as I found it useful, I proceed to set it out for the benefit of your readers, as a clue to what may be designated " treatises," concealed in the pages of Griffiths and Henfrey's useful work. List : Protoplasm, p. 641 ; Primordial utricle, p. 637 ; Sarcode, p. 674 ; Cells, animal, p. 137 ; Cells, vegetable, p. 142 ; Secondary deposits, p. 686 ; Pitted structures, p. 600; Spiral structures, p. 711 (herein refer to the following articles : Lycopodiacese, Ferus, Masses) ; Tissues, vegetable, p. 768 (herein also Fibro-plastic and Animal) ; Inter-cellular substance, p. 438 ; Medulla and Medullary rays, p. 495 ; Pollen, p. 613 ; Anther, p. 56 ; Spores, p. 724 ; Ovule, p. 565. Also the following : Epidermis, p. 294 ; Hairs, p. 370. The value of the notes to Bibliography which follow each article can only be appreciated by any one who is determined to follow up a subject, or to find what has already been written about some object which has awakened interest in the real student of nature. Another way in which such a student can utilise the "Micrographic" is to draw up conspectuses in the form given below. Similar schedules will be found under some of the articles, e.g. under Trac/ielina, p. 775. But under Actinophryina, p. 14, a table only is given, on which my conspectus is entirely based, B 2 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. though I venture to consider my " Key " of more help in tracking down species than the table. Here is my method of arranging the information given in the table under the heading " Actinophryina." I. Shell absent II. Shell present, /r^t'. Actinophryina, p. 14. 1. Pseudopodia arising from all parts of the surface. Ex. Actinophrys,^. 14. 2. Pseudopodia arising from a zone near the circumference. Ex. Tricho- discits, p. 7S0. 3. Pseudopodia arising from one side. Ex. Plagiophrys, p. 604. 1. Incrusted with foreign mattter. Ex. Pleurophiys, p. 606. 2. Not incrusted, oblong. I f Orihce lateral. Ex Trmema ^. 783. ' ^ y 0. Unnce termmal. Ex. Euglypka, p. 306. III. Shell i:iresent, attached to foreign bodies, Ex. Urmila, p. 795. {The references are to the pages of the last edition of the Alicrographic.) I have drawn up several of these " Keys," notably one for the Rotataria, which has proved serviceable ; it extends over five full sheets of foolscap written brief-wise. Portions of these tables are merely re- arrangements, similar to the key to the Actiiio- phryitia given above. They suggest that complete sets of "Keys," with references to the pages of the text, printed as an appendix to the future editions of the dictionary would be as useful as the analyses prefixed to Lewis's Law of Trusts, and Smith's Real and Personal Property, the former of which also has references to the pages of the ' text. Readers who have followed me thus far will under- stand that I advocate the exercise of drawing up these conspectuses for two reasons : — (i) the practice impresses characteristic features in the mind ; and (2) the conspectus when framed is a handy and practical guide to the worker. Finally I believe the " Micrographic " can be most advantageously em- ployed if the student will take it up, pen in hand, in the way indicated above. GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS. By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S. LIQUID PRISMS.— The spectroscope has now become so important as an instrument for research, that everything concerning it is interesting. Its efficacy depends upon the varying refrangibility of light from different sources, or light of different colours. We pass compound light such as that of a white sunbeam through a prism of glass or other transparent substance, and thereby bend it out of its original course. If it were all bent in the same degree, we should still obtain a white image on a screen or in the eye ; but as the violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red rays, are refracted or bent in different degrees — in the order named — they diverge from each other in the newly-acquired or bent course, and thus are projected upon different places, and are accordingly seen separated from each other. But the bending or refracting power of transparent substances varies considerably, and the degree of dispersion they thus effect varies accordingly. The more delicate researches in spectroscopy demand high degrees of dispersion, far more than a single prism of glass can supply. Therefore, trains of such prisms are used, the second receiving from the first, the third from the second, and so on, in such wise that each spreads further out the outspreading of the preceding one. But each of these prisms stops some of the light, and a long battery of prisms is complicated and costly. Therefore it is desirable to use the trans- parent substance which has the greatest dispersive power. When some fortunate chemist shall succeed in crystallizing carbon, or, better still, in obtaining it in the form of a plastic transparent jelly, like many of its compounds, we shall have prisms vastly superior to those of glass, and microscope lenses of corresponding superiority. In the meantime, a liquid compound of carbon with sulphur, the bisulphide of carbon, has been used by enclosing it in a hollow glass prism. This, however, stands a long way behind the diamond in dispersive power, thcjugh somewhat before glass, and it has a pernicious habit of becoming yellow as it grows old, and has done much work by exposure to light. Mr. H. G. Madan has tried, as a substitute, a liquid with rather higher refractive power than the bisulphide, which is also a carbon compound contain- ing nitrogen and hydrogen in addition to the carbon and sulphur, and bearing one of those hideous hypo- thetically descriptive names that are now in fashion among a certain class of chemists, " pkenylthiocar- batnide " and " iso-so/focianatofenilico.''^ It is interest- ing, however, in spite of such ill-usage. It retains its colour ; is far less volatile than the bisulphide ; is not so combustible, and does not dissolve the cement that may be most conveniently used for uniting the three pieces of glass that constitute its prismatic prison walls. Therefore it will come into frequent use. Scavengers on the Sea-Coast.— " In the Revue Biologique du Nord de la France," is a paper on the natural scavengers of the coast, in which is stated the curious fact, that at Boulogne the species Nassa is very abundant, and works very hard in destroying dead and decaying animal matter. At Le Portel, a fishermen's village, so near that it is but a suburb to Boulogne, Nassa is scarce, but Eurydice pulchra is very abundant, and transacts the necessary business. At Cape Alprech, there are neither Eurydice nor Nassa, but Ligia oceanica performs ; and HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SI P. at Equihen, the work is done by Orchestire. No ex- planation of the difterence is supplied, but I venture to suggest that, in the case of Boulogne, all but very hardy filth-eating animals must be killed by surfeit if they approach the harbour. At Le Portel there is one main sewer which is uncovered as it flows into the sea. I have seen the picturesque fisher-wives busily engaged washing their clothes at its outlet, I suppose they find that the ammonia softens the water. If Nassa objects to soap it would avoid this locality. The other places named are farther away and, therefore, may be the habitat of animals that are not sufficiently hardy to endure the aroma of the " eau de Boulogne " which is washed into the sea when the harbour is flooded by the Liane. Rock-formation under Pressure. — The re- searches of W. Spring are throwing more and more light on the physics and chemistry of geology. He showed some time ago that a mixture of copper and zinc filings may, by simple compression, become completely interfused and form brass ; that lead and tin may thus form pewter, and fusible alloy may be similarly formed by subjecting a mixture of its constituents to pressure. Also that sulphides of alkalis and alkaline earths may be similarly formed. It was previously assumed that fusion by heat was necessary for effecting such combination. He has recently continued such experiments by operating with moistened substances, submitting them to a pressure amounting to 6000 atmospheres, i.e. to about the pressure to which the crust of the earth is subjected at a depth of 60,000 to 70,000 feet. With all the metals the moisture exerts a retarding action, but with soluble substances that give a solution having less bulk than the undissolved materials the conglomeration is assisted by the moisture, while with substances that give a solution of greater volume than the sum of the solid and its solvent it is retarded. Substances of the first of these two classes have their solubility in water increased by pressure, while those of the second, suffer a diminution of solubility by pressure. Insoluble substances do not show such marked differences under pressure in the wet and dry state, but in some cases among these the water assists the conglomeration. A little reflection will show the bearing of these researches upon the formation of rocks and minerals of all kinds, seeing that in the subterranean laboratory of nature pressure is always operating, and therefore, our superficial laboratory results are modified accord- ingly. Mr. Spring's researches are, in fact, opening up a new chemistry, modifying and even contradict- ing some of the laws induced from our ordinary laboratory phenomena. One of these is the supposed law, that chemical combination cannot occur between dry solids, as familiarly illustrate/I by the fact, that dry carbonates of Soda or potash may be mixed in a state of powder with dr>' tartaric or citric acid with- out combining, while they combine with effervescence immediately they are dissolved or even wetted. It appears that the agency of water in such cases does no more than to bring the substances into contact ; that the contact, if effected by pressure, has the same effect. If dry sulphate of baryta and carbonate of soda are compressed, a reaction sets in, which is greatly accelerated by heat, and other new and curious chemical reactions may be produced under pressure. Mr. Spring is proceeding with further investigations. Dyes from Sea-weed. — Mr. F. Nettlefold has recently communicated to " The Chemical News " (vol. Iviii. page 15), some interesting results obtained by nitrating alginic acid, a sea-weed product. He thus obtains a light yellow substance, which is in- soluble in water, but which by treatment with alkalis yields a brown solution. This alkaline solu- tion, especially when the alkali used is ammonia, dyes cotton directly, without any mordant, and produces a fine " Bismarck brown," which resists soap, and is said to excel many of the aniline colours, the depth of shade being considerable and of great intensity. This dye differs from the aniline dyes in having little affinity for wool, either mordanted or unmordanted. This may be the beginning of much useful work, as the dye is so especially applicable to cotton. It seems to be generally the case where any one very decided colour may be brought out, others are obtain- able by modified processes. It will be a great boon if we can turn the vast accumulations of sea-weed on our shores to good account as raw material for chemical manufacture. Pig Feeding. — German chemists and farmers are doing a great deal of useful work in the feeding of animals scientifically, i.e. by weighing different kinds of food and carefully recording results. N. J. Fjord, by thus using corn, skim milk, whey, &c., as pig-food, comes to the following conclusions, isl, that the common opinion that pigs make more profitable use of their food when it is largely diluted with water— as in ordinary pig-wash — is fallacious ; 2nd, that although confining pigs produces more increase of weight than allowing them to run in the sty-yard, he thinks they are thus rendered more liable to disease. This is not new. I have heard the same opinion exi^ressed by English farmers ; it is in fact almost self-evident, but unfortunately many pig-feeders care for nothing beyond obtaining weight, whether the fattening be a healthy growth or a result of disease. Judging from the panting specimens commonly exhibited at our cattle-shows, I suspect the judges who award the medals are equally indifferent. I may safely venture to affirm that they rarely or ever apply the stethescope to their victims. The 3rd conclusion of this experimenter is that 12 HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. parts by weight of whey, 6 of skim milk, I of bruised barley, and i of bruised rice, are of approximately equal feeding value. Mixed Diet v. Vegetable-food for Pigs. — Another German experimenter selected six pigs from the same litter lOO days old ; and three were fed on I part by weight of dried blood, 6 of bran, and 14 of skim milk ; the other three received an unlimited amount of maize-meal. The difference of composition of these two kinds of food was considerable ; in the first, one half of the dry weight was albuminoid or nitrogenous ; in the second, only \ or \, the excess in the latter being carbo-hydrates or farinaceous food. At the end of 130 days, the pigs were killed and compared, with the following results. The total live weight of the first set was 19 per cent, greater than that of the second. In set I, 38 per cent, of the whole body, ex- cluding bone, was fat ; in set 2 it amounted to 46 per cent. The dead carcasses of set I were 21 per cent- heavier than set 2 ; the kidneys of set i were 42 per cent. ; the spleens 33, the livers 32, the blood 59, the hair and skins 36, the large muscles of the back 64, the two muscles of the body cavity 38, and the bones 23 per cent, greater than in the second set. The strength of the thigh-bones, determined by a specially-contrived machine, was found to be 62 per cent, greater in the first than in the second set. From this it is inferred by the author that by varying the feeding, fat or lean can be cultivated at pleasure, the carbo-hydrates being the most effective fat producers, but that excessive fat is produced at the expense of the muscles and to the detriment of the animals if used for breeding. Referring again to our Christmas shows of fat beasts, it would be well if some such analyses as the above were made occasionally. As pigs in their natural state obtain neither the dietary of set i nor set 2, a third set of experiments might be made in which green vegetables and roots should be added to the excessively farinaceous diet of the third set, the absence of vegetable juices in which is a serious defect. LAELAPS ARVOLICA. Parasite of Water Rat {Arvicola amphibins). THIS Gamasid, so far as I know, has never been described, or figured. The Gamasi are so numerous that we may be thankful wherever there is any well-marked structural difference enabling us to form a subdivision. We have to thank Koch for the division Laelaps. He describes and figures four species. These were all found on mice ; two of them (Z. hiUiris and Z. pachypiis) on Lcduhis arvalis, and two (Z. agilis and L. festimis) on Mas sylvaticus. The division is founded chiefly on the fact, that the front legs, though longer, are almost as thick as the second pair, whilst in gamasus the front legs are not only longer, but much thinner than the second Fig. I. — Ventral surface of Parasite of Water-Rat (magnified). pair. Murray ("Economic Entomology," Aptera), objects to this genus on the ground that the figure in Koch's Uebersicht does not bear out his diagnosis. Fig. 2.— Dorsal surface of Parasite of Water-Rat (magnified). This shows that Murray had not seen any of the creatures, and probably had not seen the figures in Koch's larger work. The specimens from which my figures are drawn were sent to me for identification by HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. my friend Mr, J, E. Mason, of Alford, in this county. He found them on a vole (now in the Museum at Edinburgh) which was brought into his house by his cat. Figure 2 is a view of the upper-surface of the mite. It will be observed that the larger portion of the body is covered with a chitinous plate of a dark brown colour ; in its middle is a darker portion in the form of a cross. The creature is covered with a number of strong spiky hairs, especially noticeable near the edge of the dorsal plate, and on the hinder margin of the soft part of the body. Figure i shows the under-surface. There are two somewhat quadrangular chitinous plates, one thoracic, the other abdominal, having spiky hairs, especially near the angles. And besides these two plates, there is a third lighter-coloured anal plate, of. a triangular shield-shape, having the anal aperture in the centre, a small hair on each side of this aperture and a long spiky hair at the apex. The two spiracles are easily seen, also the air-tubes leading from them. C. F. George. A ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. T the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society Mr. J. Roberts described the instrument by means of which he measured and engraved copies of stellar photographs, to which I referred in my last article. The diameters of the star discs are mea- sured by the aid of a micrometer connected with a graving tool moving over a copper plate, so that a circle is drawn on the plate corresponding to the size of the photographed star disc, and the position of the star is accurately registered on the copper plate. Mr. Inwards described a novel compensating pen • dulum of very simple construction. The pendulum has a steel rod and a steel sphere. The rod is suspended by a spring, which is clasped between jaws held in a sliding block of metal, which moves vertically in a groove below the point of suspension. With each variation of temperature the sliding block moves up or down, so that the spring is clasped by the jaws at a different height, as the sliding block is attached to a zinc rod, the height of which can be adjusted by a fine screw. In January Mercury will be an evening star, setting at the beginning of the month about 4 aft., and on the 31st at 6.33 aft. Venus will be an evening star, setting on the 1st at 7 hrs. 41 min., and on the 31st at 9 hrs. 7 min. Mars will be an evening star, setting on the ist at 7 hrs. 47 min., and on the 31st at 8 hrs. 3 min. Jupiter will be a morning star, rising on the 1st at 6.46 A.M., and on the 31st at 5.15 a.m. Saturn will be an evening star, rising on the ist at 7.13 P.M., and on the 31st at 5.3 p.m. Meteorology.— A.\. the Royal Observatory, Green- wich, the lowest reading of the barometer for the week ending 24th November, was 29-61 in. on Tuesday morning, and the highest 30-06 in. on Friday evening. The mean temperature of the air was 49 deg., and 7-8 deg. above the average. The general direction of the wind was W.S.^V. Rain fell on two days of the week, to the aggregate amount of o'li in. The duration of registered bright sun- shine in the week was 6-2 hours, against 5-1 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes. For the week ending 8th December, the lowest reading of the barometer was 29-75 in. at the be- ginning of the week, and the highest was 30"6 in. on Thursday morning. The mean temperature of the air was 49-1 deg., and 6-7 deg. above the average. The general direction of the wind was S.S.W. Rain fell on three days of the week, to the aggregate amount of o' 17 in. The duration of registered bright sunshine in the week was n"5 hours, against 9-3 hours at Glynde Place, Lewes. The temperature in January is several degrees higher on the west coast than it is on the east coast. The isotherm, or line of equal temperature, 38°, runs along the east coast from Berwick to Lincoln, and then trending to the west returns inland through York to Dumfries. 39° runs from Kirkcudbright through Bolton, Chester, Hereford, Oxford and London to Rarasgate. 40° from Wigtown, through Radnor, Bournemouth, Bristol, Salisbury, South- ampton, and four miles inland along the coast to Folkestone. 41° from the Isle of ]\Ian, [_ through Taunton to the Isle of Wight. 42° from Anglesea, through Swansea, across Dartmoor to the sea. 43° from Pembroke through Plymouth. 44° runs through Truro, and 45° just through the Land's End. In January the average rainfall on the east coast is I inch ; inland throughout the midlands it is 2 inches ; along the south coast it is 3 inches, and along the west coast it is mostly 6 inches, this last figure representing the enormous amount of 620 tons to each acre. Mild December Days — Some Curious Con- trasts.— During the first week in December a strong and broad current of air came across our islands from the equatorial regions of the Atlantic, and unusually mild weather was reported over the entire kingdom. On the Continent, however, where light breezes descend from a large anticyclonic system lying over Central Europe, conditions were more seasonable, and as a result some curious contrasts have recently been observed between the weather over England and the state of things prevailing in localities which bear a reputation for sunny geniality. On the morn- ing of the 4th of December, for example, London was 5° warmer than Naples, 7° warmer than Monaco, 9° warmer , than Laghouat, in Central Algeria, 11°; 8 HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. warmer than Constantinople, 12° warmer than Bor- deaux, 14° warmer than Marseilles, 16'^ warmer than Rome, 17° warmer than Madrid, and 19° warmer than Paris. On the 6th very similar contrasts were observed, the weather in the metropolis being 3° warmer than Lisbon, 11° warmer than Nice, 19° warmer than Paris, and 30° warmer than Belfast. In the course of the day the thermometer in London reached a maximum of 58°, and the day was there- fore the mildest December day experienced since 1873, when a similar reading was recorded on the 17th of the month. An examination of the meteoro- logical statistics shows that the thermometer in December seldom rises above 55°, and in the years 1885, 1886, and 1887, it did not succeed even in reaching that level. On the loth came a great change, for on the morning of that day it was colder in London than any other part of western Europe south of the Arctic circle, being 22° colder than the Scilly Isles, 10° colder than Berlin, 3'' eolder than Paris, and 1° colder than Stockholm. A WINTER IN MASSAUA. Part IL BIRDS were more numerous. There were two species of vultures, the more numerous species being quite black, a stork, a heron, spoonbill {Platalea leucorodia), pelican, three species of gull : a bird of one of these species was wounded in the wing and is now alive and doing well in the Zoological Gardens ; two species of terns — a specimen of one of these species {Stenia velox) was also wounded and kept alive for some months, and was a most interest- ing pet ; it was astonishing to see what large fish it would swallow. A gannet, tropic bird, large numbers of sandpipers, turnstones and curlews, a sand grouse, three species of wagtails, several of flycatchers, an owl, a goatsucker, and a bunting, the last very common, and as its breast was jet black and its upper plumage and head sand-coloured, seemed to appear and disappear in a marvellous manner. Reptiles were scarce : one small brown snake, a small striped sand lizard, and a gecko were all I saw. The sand lizard is a species also very common at Suakim. Land Arthropoda. — Malacostraca by one species of armadillo. Arachnidi were poorly represented in species, but these species were plentiful. There were two scorpions, Prionus liosoma, and Bultuis EtiropcEJis ; three spiders of the genera Ixodes, Epeira (very common) and Thomisus respectively. The Myriopoda were represented by one species of the genus Scolopendra. Of Insccta were collected ten species of Hemiptera, among which were Cletus notatits^ rcntatoma vcrhasci, Lygnus cnidclis, Penta- tiomi, Reduvius, Reduvii, Dysdcrius sitpcrstitioiiis ; seventeen species of Orthoptera, Cyrtacanthacris riifiuruius, Truxalis nasuta^ CEdipoda, Caloptenuts Italicus (?), Chrotogouus liigid>ris, Gryllus"(two species), Porthetis, Opernala (?), Opomala (?) ; seven species of Neuroptera, Anax ephippigeriis, Myrmeleon (acantha- cHsis), Myrmeleon, Distoisteisa Britllci, Sphingonetiis nebnlonis (?), Cyrtacanthairis mccstus, Chrysopa ; ten of Diptera, Hippobossa camciina, Bombylius, several species of Muscidse (the common house-fly was very numerous and troublesome), and Culicidoe, and one species of Tipulidce ; thirty-seven of Lepidoptera, Attaaos bankina:, Spliingotnorpha chlorea (common), Achcra melicerta, Deiopia pidchetta (common), Callopi- stna exotica, Agrotis, Arcidakainterpulsata, CallicJuyas pyrette, C. flo7-ella, Allylothris agathina, Teraclus, Bclenois ellesaitma, Co lias hyale, Danais dorippus, Hypolimas alcippoides, Pyramcis cardui, Yphthmia, Azarus jesons, Plebeius trochihis, Taraais pulchra, PyrgHs asteroidea. There were three other species of butterfly observed, and, among the moths, some Tineidae, which I did not catch ; seventeen of Hymenoptera, Stilbum amcihystinum, Eumenes dimidiatipeiniis, Ammophila, Xylocopa, Multillo, Xylocopa viodcsta, Discolia (two species), BracoHi Rhynchium ; fifty-seven of Coleoptera, two species of Trimera, Dermestes, and Coccinella ; two species of Tetramera of the genus Cleonus ; of Heteromera, Zophosis siilcapHs, Arthroidetis cicatrix, Oxycara, Crypticus, Aphitobius, Monomma, Opatrum, Adesmia (two species), Pimelia, Ocuera(?), Lentyria, Euryon(?) Nacerdes, and others unidentified ; of Pentamera were Philonthus, Oxypoda, Aphodius (two species), Saprinus (four species), Corynetes rufipes, Dermestes vulpinus, Anomala, Dromius, Chlsenius, Brachinus, Harpalus, Irox, Onthophagus, Atenchus sacer, Copris (two species), Hister, SilpJia micans, Acanthophorus near Capensis, Ermectes griseus, Bradyboenus, Glycia ornata, Tetragonoderus Jlavo-vittatiis, In most cases the generic names only are given, but where possible the specific names have been added. There were great numbers of Orthoptera, particularly grass- hoppers, but the variety of species was small. Of the beetles, the Carabidre were well represented, while only two species of Staphylinidre could be found and those very small. Fishes, Crustacea, Corals, etc. — The scarcity of life on land is amply made up by its profusion in the sea ; at times the harbour literally teems with fish, a " Half- beak " (Hemirhamphus) is particularly plentiful. These fish swim about in shoals and are often attended by one or two Belones, who occasionally snap up one of the "half-beaks." It is curious to see a belone swimming with, and in a shoal of " half- beaks," for a circle quite free of fish surrounds the belone, then suddenly with a dart like lightning the belone seizes an unfortunate "half-beak" and swallows it. I caught a belone in a strange manner one day, it had got some fatty substance entangled in its jaws, and was unable to dive or swim. Nineteen HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. rspecies of fish were captured as follows : Apogon -cnneastigma,"^ Apogonichthys auritits* Scokpsis gha- ttavt,* Cocsio striatJis* Chrysophrys bifasciata* (tolerably common and very good eating), Serraniis hcxagonafits and S. lanceolatiis, both species plentiful and fairly good eating, commonly known amongst sailors as "rock-cod," Ldhriims viahscna, common .and good eating, Holocanthiis maculosus, Caranx affinis,* Anteniiarius marmoratus, var. raniiiiis, Acanthiirus nigrofusciis, Gobins echinocephalus* very <:ommon amongst the coral and attaching itself to it by the sucker formed by the ventral fins, retroscirtcs mtratus* Tetrodon stellatus* a pretty yellow and black-striped " globe-fish," and when it was first hauled up in the trawl it was with difficulty that the mouth and fins could be distinguished, so perfectly inflated into a ball was the body ; a species of Pseudo- scarus, generally known as a " parrot fish," very common and good eating ; Glyphidodon ccckstitms, Julis lunaris* a species of " half-beak " (Hemirham- phus), so called from having the mandible elongated into a long beak, large numbers of this fish would on dark nights jump into the boat as we pulled about the harbour, a species of belone,t several species of Plagiostomi, including the hammer-headed shark (Eygaena), saw-fish (Pristis), rays (Rajidre) ; a species of coffer-fish (Ostracion), so-called from the body being enclosed in a sort of hard casing, the only soft skin being about the tail bases of the fins and snout to allow the free working of the muscles in these parts ; numerous species of coral-fishes (Squamipinnes) glowing like butterflies in all sorts of colours and as varied in shape, and several species of Thynni. We had splendid opportunities of watching the fish, so clear was the water, and the ship lay just outside the edge of the reef, where most of the fish seemed to congregate. It is interesting to watch a large shoal cA fish swimming about, and how they move round an obstacle following their leaders in exactly the same track as if they were all in one piece. Of Crustacea, crabs were the most numerous, a long-legged fast-running species (Gecarcinus) was in great numbers on the beach, and could only be caught after a hard run ; then came the hermit-crabs (Paguridce) of all sizes, nearly every shell (and great numbers of empty shells of all kinds lay along the shore) contained a hermit-crab, and the effect of seeing numbers of shells moving rapidly about is very strange and rather startling ; there was also a very pietty " calling-crab" (Gelasimus), a swimming-crab (Portunus), and a species of the curious sponge-crab (Dromia), which always carries about with it such a curious collection of living things on its back. Several species of prawns (Palremon) and " Locust shrimps " (Squillre) were common ; also a curious little Crustacean like a minute lobster, which, after having been kept for some time in a glass, would * Deposited in the Natural History Museum, S. Kensington. t " Gar-fish " of fishermen and sailors. throw off its limbs with aloud click, perfectly audible at a distance of two yards ; and a cuttle-fish (Sepia). It was somewhat strange that, although quantities of empty shells could be picked up on the beach, very few were fresh, the principal live shells found were cowries, and even these were scarce. One land-shell {Bitlimtis Abyssinicits*) only was found. Asteroidea, as the common starfish, sunstar and brittle stars were common, two species of " sea- urchin" (Echinoidea), one with long thin spines, very common on the edge of the reefs in holes it makes for itself, and a short thick-spined species ; there were also three species of "sea-cucumbers" (Holothu- roidea). Tunicates were common, but sea-anemones (Hexactinire) were, comparatively speaking, rare. Of corals were obtained Astrea dcfiliculata (specimens of this genus were found at a depth of 15 feet at Monkullo), a variety of Tubipora mitska ; Madrepora gracilis, a Fungina, PTeteropera hempridii, and several species of Antipathidse. At times the water was brilliantly phosphorescent, particularly on the night of January loth, when the sea was one mass of green phosphorescent fire, the glow from which was distinctly visible all over the harbour ; it appeared suddenly and disappeared as suddenly, and was caused by myriads of the Noctiliua mi/iaris, tons of which were thrown up on the beach the next day in great masses of reddish jelly (see letter in Science- Gossip of February 1886). The varieties of minute marine life are almost beyond description, though some, as species of Lepralia and Cellepora, make themselves conspicuous by their numbers. To those interested in marine life no place offers such attractions as one of these coral-formed harbours. Varieties of seaweeds were not abundant, two or three species of Melano- sperms growing in large patches were the most noticeable. 5. JVeather. — As in most tropical places the constant regularity of the weather is wonderful, and strikes forcibly an observer who has been accustomed to the continual changes of the British Isles. Obser- vations were taken with standard instruments (lent by the Meteorological Office) regularly day and night during the three months (December, January and February) every two hours for the barometer, wind's direction and force, and every four hours for all other observations, except those on the rainfall observed at 8 A.M., daily, solar radiation thermometer read at 8 A.M., noon, and 4 P.M., and spectroscopic observa- tions (using one of Browning's miniature spectroscopes) at 7 A.M. daily. (l) Wind. — The phenomenon of the land and sea breeze was very marked. Towards 9. 30 P.M., the land-wind set in ; at first very light and gradually increasing, to about 4 A. M., then decreasing, veering to the N. and freshening about 9.30 A.M., and setting in from the sea about noon, increasing in force * Deposited in the Natu-al History Museum, S. Kensington. lO HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. until about 2.45 p.m., then decreasing, and towards 9,30 P.M. backing ngain into the land-wind. In all cases the velocity of the sea-breeze was much greater than that of the land-breeze. The mean direction of the wind for the three months was N. 28° W. with a mean velocity of 6*i miles per hour, (2) Barometer.— Rise and fall slight and very regular, 1st minimum about 3.28 A.M., 2nd minimum, 3.33 P.M., 1st maximum 9.50 A.M., 2nd maximum 9.40 P.M. The general mean height was 29*952. The mean height of the barometer was higher in January than in December or February. (3) Temperatures. — Maximum temperature of air at 1.30 P.M., minimum at 4. II A.M. The general mean for the three months was 77 '8' The lowest temperature, 68. i, was regis- tered at 4 A.M. February 2nd, and the highest 95° at 2.30 P.M. February 28th. The coolest time was the last fortnight of January' and the first fortnight of February. The maximum temperature of the sea- water (in the harbour) was at 5h. 34m. p.m., and the minimum at 7h. 45m. A.M. Mean temperature for the three months was 81 -6, and mean density 1-0265. (4) Vapour tension. — Mean for the three months 0750. It is interesting to note that in December and February there were double daily maxima and minima. In January one daily max. and one min. (5) Relative Humidity. — Mean for the three months 79*2; maximum about 4. 13 A.M., and minimum about 2 . 22 P.M. ; in summer this is very low. (6) Clouds. — Mean amount for the three months 4*7 ; ist maxi- mum at 7.35 A.M., 2nd maximum at 7h, 51m. P.M. 1st minimum at ih. 20m. a.m., 2nd minimum at ih. 49m. P.M. The most common form of cloud was a middle layer stratus generally moving from a S.S.E. point, the low clouds, chiefly of the cumulus type, came with the wind, and the cirrus forms from a S. W. point. (7) Rainfall. — For December, was i-oinch, rain falling on 6 days ; for January, was i • 8 inches, rain falling on 14 days, and for February, the record was unreliable, rain falling on 7 days. Observations with the spectroscope gave in the majority of cases valuable indications of approaching wet, though from the almost constant appearance of the rainband on seacoasts or at sea, it is more difficult to estimate the relative value of the band there than it is at inland places. (S) Black-bulb thermometer. — Mean height for the three months was 109-1. (9) Weather. — Generally fine, though this is likely to be interrupted in the winter season by heavy rainfalls of short duration, and hard squalls accompanied by lightnin"- and thunder, and great variations in the direction and velocity of the wind. From a commercial point, Massaua is only useful as being the best port forthispart of Africa, for although it would be possible to cultivate the land (an event which would take place naturally in time) yet it would require an immense and continual outlay for irrigation. In conclusion, my thanks are due to the gentlemen who so kindly assisted me in naming my specimens^. particularly to Mr. Bauerman, of the Geological Museum, and to Mr. Boulanger and Mr. Waterhouse of the British Museum, South Kensington. David Wilson Barker. 66 Gloucester Crescent, Regents Park. SHORE HUNTING. Common British Sponges. SURELY nothing can be more enjoyable than v/hat I have termed above "Shore Hunting," on a sunny summer's day. With its aid the sea-side visitor may rid himself of that sea-side enmd which comes to all those who go away for a month or so from the labour and interests of business or profession, and neglect to provide themselves with the where- withal to occupy their liberated energies. "Pardon, my' lord," says the monk in Hypatia, " of sitting, as of all carnal pleasure,'cometh at length satiety," and the same might be said of that endless routine of sea-gazing, watching for the steamer, in- specting the hotel register, and the like, with which the sea-side summer visitant interests, or tries to interest, himself. The fallacy of the gospel of idleness is so patent, and is so continually being demonstrated, that it is wonderful how the superstition of it clings so • firmly amongst us. The man who complains of being . overworked and says he will go down to some quiet little watering-place and have a good spell of doing nothing, finds himself stranded, after a couple of days,- with only himself for company, and very poor com- pany at that, and is compelled to fall back upon the latest novel which he endeavours to read in the sun on the beach, getting a headache in consequence. Your other, and more sensible individual, willing to make his peace with the mammon of unrighteousness, goes to ■ ' one of the more crowded resorts, where, by the aid of stuffy billiard rooms, many calls for refreshment, ! with much strong tobacco and a minimum of genuine ! open air sea-side life, he, at any rate, succeeds in ' keeping himself occupied and interested, and so is I the healthier and better for his outing. The logical [ outcome of which is that a mild dissipation, though - I a low form of pleasure, is better than complete lack ' of interest. The physiology of the matter is simple enough. For the greater part of the year, perhaps eleven months out of the twelve, every hour is occupied, and the whole nervous organisation is kept on the stretch. On the other hand, we have a condition where life is devoid of interest or excitement, living, or better vegetating, at the lowest possible pressure. It re- quires a special training to become habituated to either condition, and once so habituated, the change from the one to the other is impossible, and the attempt to make it harmful. The characters of the holidays of the man of leisure, HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. II •and of the busy Yankee, are correlated to their habits of life, and are so distinct that the former cannot comprehend how the latter finds a pleasure in rushing from place to place "doing" the globe. Why, your globe-trotter is the outcome of a manner of life which has rendered abundance of incident and excitement as necessary to him as opium is to the opium-eater. It is not change'from activity to idleness which is required, but change of interest, by which the mental energies are shunted to a fresh track, while the old one which does service for eleven months of the year is ■being repaired. But this is a long drawn plea for shore-hunting, wherein paterfamilias (ay ! both the pater and the familias) may find interest without excitement, and, dabbling among rock-pools, may become as one of ■his own boys, sharing their pleasure, but seasoning it with his own powers of reflection. These short articles now commenced are not in- tended to afford an exhaustive guide to even the com- mon objects of the sea-shore, but rather to give short descriptions of the more easily recognised members of a definite group, with the best methods of preserving them and treating them for examination. The young collector, without exception, is at first confronted by two difficulties : — he is bewildered with ithe surprising and unlooked-for variety of organisms which he discovers lurking under every stone and in every rock -pool, and is at a loss to know where he may turn for aid in identifying these countless animals. The first is a 'transient matter, but the second is incurable, unless he have a friend at hand who will refer him to the necessary books, and give him his first lessons in identification. It is my pleasant ambition to supply the place of that friend. In the long run it can prove exhilarating to no •creature to sit passive like a bucket and have facts pumped in, says Carlyle, and likewise, in the long run, it cannot but prove wearisome and as labour which has no end to go on collecting, identifying, and amassing a knowledge of external form without vitalising that knowledge with some information ■ concerning the habits, structure, and above all life- histories of the animals so collected. At least it cannot but prove stale and unprofitable to the ordinarily con- structed mind, though the odd individual out of ten thousand who can delight in collecting postage stamps, ■ discovering how many times the word "moreover" occurs in the Bible, or solving prize puzzles, may think . otherwise. However, even to such would I extend a word of comfort, and that in the guise of a parable of facts. Certain ants of California in the process of forming . their underground homes, cast out large quantities of earth. Working as they do in the loose deposit of sur- face denudation, they unavoidably and unknowingly . turn out amongst their rubbish gems of gold and precious stones. The Indians have noticed this, and take advantage of the labours of the ant to pick out the stones they turn up. But in truth all scientific workers are to a greater or less extent working in the dark, labouring in the dimness of chaos, endeavouring to replace it by order with the honest purpose of bringing perchance one jewel to the light in order that a mightier hand may place it amongst its kindred to complete the glory of our human crown of knowledge. Let us remember how Darwin's glorious generalisa- tions were made possible by, and built up from, the labours of countless workers, or turn to any mono- graph and observe how much of the material has been supplied by enthusiastic and unknown collectors, and go forth to the rock pools with a strong hope that we too may furnish something towards the building. General Appearance and Anatomy of Sponges, Starting about an hour and a half before low-water, so as to be on the ground a full hour before the tide commences to rise again, and choosing some sheltered nook among the rocks if the coast be a rocky one, or about the piles of a pier if it be an open one, you will be sure to find attached to the under surface of inclined stones, in clefts and crannies of the rocks, about the roots of sea-weed, in short, in any sheltered spot where there is good surface for attachment and where the sun does not strike too strongly, tenacious masses of a sponge-yellow, green, brown, or orange colour, and with large orifices on the surface. These are the easily recognised objects for iwhich you are searching. Probably the first form which you will recognise will be one closely adherent to the rocks, very abundant on sloping surfaces not exposed directly to the waves or hot sun, and ofasi^onge-yellow colour shading into green on exposed parts. This is the common Halichondria panicea, the " bread-crumb " sponge of Ellis. Another equally common form is Hymeniacidon sangiiiiua, it is readily recognised by its salmon colour, and is also attached to rocks. It does not, however, form a mere crust with a smooth surface thrown into gentle hillocks, as does the Halichondria, but rises up into fistulous digitate pro- jections, each of which bears a large orifice at its summit. These two forms are very hardy, occurring much farther above low-water than any other sponge. Neither, however, presents us with a simple type of sponge-structure, but as they are the most easily obtained and readily recognised forms, they will best serve to furnish us with a first object lesson on sponge anatomy. To avoid confusion, the following description will apply specially to HalicJiondriapanicea^ though the points described may be equally well worked over in Hymeniacidon sanguiiica. Pieces of the sponge should be removed as com- pletely as possible and taken home in a considerable quantity of fresh sea-water. A pocket lens, a couple of needles mounted in holders, a pipette, and a 12 BA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. microscope, with a few slips and cover glasses, 'are all that is required for the first examination. With their aid the following description can be easily followed. The surface of Ilalichondria panicca is smooth, rising into low elevations, which are surmounted by crater-like openings. If the specimen be examined while quite fresh and healthy, the existence of strong currents streaming out of these openings or " oscula " may be readily demonstrated as follows — take a little carmine or Indian ink and rub it up with sea-water. Now, by means of a glass tube drawn out at one end, that is a pipette, place a little of the water with its suspended particles in the neighbourhood of an osculum, when the upstreaming current will bear it with it. Some of the particles will be drawn to the general surface of the sponge, and the finer ones penetrating by means of microscopical apertures or "pores," which occur in immense numbers, cause a distinct coloration, red or black, as the case may be, which will not wash off. Two opposite currents are thus shown to exist — one passing into the sponge by a great number of finely-divided streams, the inhalent currents, and another passing out of the sponge in comparatively few strong currents, by the oscula. This continual circulation of water through the animal serves to bring food, to carry out effete products, and for respiration. How it is maintained will be seen later. Now examine the surface of the sponge with a lens — it will readily be seen to consist of a thin membrane, the "dermal membrane," supported by a reticulum of spicules. A thin flake of dermal membrane may be sliced off with the point of a razor, or sharp scalpel. A double-edged lancet however best serves the purpose — it is merely pushed under point first. After flattening it out beneath a cover- slip, examine with a low power ; the reticulum of spicules will now appear as a network of interlacing bundles of spicules. These are imbedded in a gelatinous substance, which is the sponge-flesh, and lie more or less parallel to the surface of the animal ; the spicules of the rest of the sponge are also gathered into interlacing bundles, but lie in all planes. The dermal membrane in this form is thus a very definite part of the sponge, with a higher power, J-inch ob. for instance ; careful focussing should enable one to determine the shape of the individual spicule. Each will be found to have the form of a delicate, elongated, double-pointed rod. This rod is rounded in section, and its sides are more or less parallel throughout the greater part of their extent. It may be straight or slightly curved. These points should be accurately noted, since they serve in part to fix the species of the specimen under examination. Such a preparation however, in which the spicules are gathered in bundles and imbedded in a matrix, is not calculated to demonstrate spicular form with any great degree of accuracy. This is best done by completely isolating the spicules ; and since they are composed of silica, and therefore highly resistant to the action of reagents, it is easily accomplished. The sponge-flesh may be macerated in dilute hydro- chloric, sulphuric, or nitric acids, or dilute caustic potash. Perhaps the first-mentioned is best ; which- ever is used, the method of procedure is the same. Small pieces of the sponge are cut off and treated for some time with the reagent — on a water-bath if available — the sponge is completely disintegrated and the spicules form a sediment. The supernatant liquid may now be poured off, and the vessel (a test- tube for instance) filled up with water ; after allowing to settle, this is also poured off, and the residue collected on a filter paper on which it is dried — a powdery mass of spicules resulting. A little of this may now be mounted in Canada balsam. Neither glycerine nor glycerine jelly should be used as mounting media, since they may be of the same refractive index as the spicules, which would then totally disappear. All the spicules of Halichondria panicca are of the same form — this is seldom the case. Returning to the slice of dermal membrane, a i-inch ob. will show that the sponge-flesh does not form a continuous film. It is pierced at frequent intervals by round openings. These are the fine "pores" mentioned above, through which the inhalent currents stream. A slice of dermal membrane should be lightly stained with picro-carmine, and mounted in Canada balsam to form a second reference specimen — the isolated spicules being the first. The character of the skeleton other than that which supports the dermal membrane may be demonstrated by a hand-cut section at right angles to the general surface. The section can be mounted in Canada balsam unstained, and also examined in sea-water. By its aid it will be seen that the spicules are of the same form throughout, and that they are gathered into bundles which interlace to form an irregular network ; that is to say, the network is of such a character that no strong structural lines are present; its strands are of much the same thickness throughout, and run irregularly in every plane. This is a dis- tinctive feature. We now have a fairly complete knowledge of the skeleton, dermal membrane, pores and oscula. It remains to follow the currents in their passage through the sponge, and to consider the histological structure. The pocket-lens and scaljjel will demonstrate two facts, that the oscula are the orifices of large tubes into which open smaller canals, the lumen of the larger tube being eventually completely lost in the smaller ones ; and that, beneath the dermal membrane, spaces exist into which the pores open. The oscula are one end of a series of internal canals and spaces of which the pores are the other termination. Through the multitude of pores the inhalent current pass, enter a number of delicate canals, and after traversing certain spaces which are enlargements of the lumen of the canals enter a series of larger canals. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 13 finally emerging as the exhalent currents of the oscula. These currents are maintained by the lashing movements of flagella which line the walls of the enlargements just mentioned. To recapitulate. The fundamental structure of this sponge is as follows — it is composed of a sponge-flesh supported by a skeleton. The latter is composed of a network of delicate needles, gathered into inter- lacing bundles ; the former, that is the sponge-flesh, forms a mass which contains imbedded in it the skeleton, and is also honeycombed by a system of canals and spaces, all in complete intercommunica- tion, the canal system. One extreme of the canal system is the pores, the other the oscula ; and through it a continual stream of water is flowing during the life of the animal setting from the pores to the oscula. This current is maintained by the action of flagella situated on the cells lining certain enlargements in the course of the canals, known as the "flagellated chambers." The further anatomy of the sponge-flesh now remains to be dealt with under the heading histology. A more complete account of the canal system will then be given, and the sketch of the anatomy of Halichondria panicca will be complete. W. B. Hardy, B.A. GOSSIP ABOUT FORAMINIFERA. Part i. By Edward H. Robertson. IF the reader be a microscopist, hath it ever occurred to him what manifold advantages he possesses over his tr^wymrj, the geologist, the botanist, the physiologist, and the zoologist ? If not mere systematists, the abounding delights of their several pursuits may, and do, charm them into enthusiasm ; but there occur times and seasons when even their engrossing pleasures must, for obvious reasons, be laid aside or neglected. 'Tis never so with the genuine microscopist, for altogether independent of time or season — excepting in the case of serious illness — instrument in hand, he may, at his own sweet will, wander through Nature's unbounded realm, gleaning in every sweet field, and from even the most neglected corners and arid deserts, marvels of beauty to call forth his admiration and delight. Imprison him in a lonely cell and leave him but his microscope, and I trow he will have no cause to lament a lack of beauty within even its narrow confines. Nay, more, remove from its case the works of that triumph of human skill and con- trivance, a watch, and tell him to accomplish the seemingly impossible task of filling its empty com- pass with a store of marvels that would require a life-time to examine, and it shall be done. Smile not, reader — this is no exaggerated metaphor — 'tis a literal fact, and I repeat more fully that, if he were to devote every moment of a long life to the study of the minute organisms that might be con- tained within the compass of an ordinary watch case — his thread of life would be severed in the very midst of his pleasant labours. And yet, haply, liis treasures might consist solely of the very humblest forms of animal and vegetable life — foraminifera, polycystina, and diatomacese. If the longest span of human existence would be inadequate to examine in detail his countless treasures, how many volumes would he not require in which to record his observations? How, then, shall the writer, within the small compass of a few columns in Science-Gossip, hope to convey more than the barest notion of one of the groups referred to ? I shall not attempt so herculean a task, so well performed by students infinitely more capable than I, but shall content myself with ;a .brief sketch of one of these three groups — the Foraminifera. In doing this, I wish to be regarded rather as a recorder, than as an expounder of certain curious facts with which the history of these wonderful and minute organisms abounds. When we commence our examination of them, we at once plunge into an infinitude of beauty, and are lost in wonder and admiration at their extraordinarily varied and graceful forms, often sur- passing in symmetry the most costly productions of ceramic art. Yet, notwithstanding the beauty of their external coverings, would it ever have entered into the belief of the uninstructed that the inhabitants of these same beautiful structures are but homo- geneous atoms of jelly, exhibiting no more definite organisation or structure than does the drop of glue, being even destitute of any. investment? Yet such is indeed the case. These foraminifera occupy a place amongst the humblest forms of animal life, and are classed by naturalists with the Rhizopoda, that class of lowly organisms in which are placed the sponges, amcebK, polycystina, etc. The class Rhizopoda is one of the three great groups into which the sub-kingdom. Protozoa (Gr.) protos, first ; zodn, animal), is divided, and derives its name from two Greek words, rhiza, root, and pons, foot, from the fact of all the animals included in it possessing the power of throwing out, from the surface of any part of their body, processes termed " pseudopodia " (Gr. pseudos, falsity, and pons, a foot) which they employ in moving about and in obtaining food. Unlike the feet and arms of more highly- organised animals, these pseudopodia can be again withdrawn or absorbed into the substance of the body, leaving not a trace behind. This jelly-like protoplasm is termed "sarcode" (Gr. sarx, flesh, and eidos, form), and is a gelatinous, somewhat granular substance, resembling thin glue, or the white of egg. As already stated, this substance exhibits no definite organisation, or structure, "so that," to quote the words of Dr. Carpenter, " the physiologist has here a 14 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. •case in which those vital operations, which he is accustomed to see carried on by an elaborate apparatus, are performed without any special instruments what- ever— a little particle of apparently homogeneous jelly changing itself into a greater variety of forms than the fabled Proteus, laying hold of its food without members, swallowing it without a mouth, digesting it without a stomach, appropriating its nutritious material without absorbent vessels or a circulating system, moving from place to place without muscles, feeling (if it has any power to do so) without nerves, propagating itself without genital apparatus, and not ■only this, but in many instances forming shelly •coverings of a symmetry and complexity not surpassed by those of any testaceous animals." orbicular, pyramidal, straight, helical or spiral, spiral and discoidal, discoidal and produced (see Figures), and braid-like. Some forms are externally smooth, but many more are strengthened, and ornamented with ribs, spines, and bosses or tubercles, sometimes curiously sculptured, sometimes imperforate, except by a single orifice, but more frequently punctured by numerous holes, termed foramina, from whence they are called foraminifera : these foramina being often symmetrically disposed, and greatly adding to their beauty. Difficult as it may be to realise that in the coverings of such minute creatures the same con- trivance to afford support to the walls under pressure has been applied as in the case of the cephalapoda, mollusca, echini, &c., it is undoubtedly the case, and in Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5- Fig. 6. Fig. 7- Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. II. Fig. 12. Fig. 14- Fig. 16. Fig. 17- oraminifera. — Figs. 3, Geoponus stella-borealis (after removal of shell by acid); 4, Polystornellii regina: $, Lageiia gracilis; 6, Lagena lains; 7, Vertebratina striata; 8, Entoaclenia globosa ; 9, E. squamosa; 10, Flabellina rtigosa; 11, Cristel- laria lanceolata; 12, Textitlaria. Marice ; 13, Rotalia Bcccarii ; 14, Polymoyphina coinplanata; 15, Spirocidiita Carpen- teri; 16, Quinque-loculina ; 17, P. Fichtdliaiia. Wonderful enough it will appear that these molecules ■ of jelly, not invested by any membrane or integument, can exist in a fluid without disintegration, but in- finitely more marvellous that such jelly atoms, desti- tute of organs, should construct habitations exhibiting previously unsuspected and often most elaborate structure, frequently traversed by a complicated system of canals, which seem to have an important func- tion in the nutrition of the creature, and rivalling in beauty the most exquisite sculptured coverings of the " testacea," i.e. shell-covered animals ; yet so it is, and richly does their singular beauty merit all the enthusiastic attention lavished upon them. These tiny shells present an immense variety of forms, these shells, so small that thousands, or even tens of thousands, may be contained in a child's thimble, we yet here, also, see combined ornament and utility, lightness and strength, these external characters being usually so well marked as to be readily recognised, even with a common hand magnifier, notwithstanding their minuteness. Some of the simple forms, monothalamia, " single- chambered," consist of a single chamber only, as in the Lagena and Gromia types. Examples of these are shown in Figs. 5, 6, 8, '9. The greater number are, however, complex structures — these latter being called polythalamous, i.e., *' many chambered," each chamber of thcshell being distinct ; HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. IS' communication between the several jelly bodies being afforded either through a single opening between the divisions or septa, or, more frequently, through a series of punctures by which they are perforated. Each tiny shell may thus be considered to contain a colony of semi-independent beings. The method of increase in these shells appears to be an extremely simple one. From the original body of sarcode, a second, with its covering, is formed, and overlaps the first and so on, these shell-encrusted globules ever en- larging, and being developed on a straight or curved line in lineal order, or alternately in a braid or twist- like arrangement as may be seen in Fig. 12. These shells are included in the family Enallostagidic. Another family, the Entoniostagidic, exhibits the chambers arranged in a double series in a spiral form. The J/iliola family includes those shells in which the chambers are arranged around a common perpen- dicular axis, in such a manner that each chamber occupies the entire length of the shell. (Figs. 15, 16.) {To be coftti lined.) BIRD-LIFE. By Dr. Crespi. Formerly Editor of the " Sanitary Revietu.'^ SEVERAL years ago, after a dispiriting struggle with fortune, I left Birmingham and went to Exeter for six weeks. It was the 28th of April, and in South Devon the trees were in full leaf and summer was come. Several times a week, in the evening, I used to stroll through St. David's and along the Stoke Cannon Road, across Cowley Bridge, and out into the country. To the right were the richly- wooded heights, which delight the visitor approaching St. David's station from Taunton and Barnstaple, and to the left stretched the beautiful fields and noble woods of Upton Pynes, the well-known seat of Sir Stafford Northcote. The weather was, with some exceptions, charming, and again and again I wandered on for hours enjoying in perfection the sunshine, the soft air, the refreshing verdure, and, last but not least, the ceaseless songs of the birds. Devon is not usually considered rich in bird -life, so at least naturalist friends tell me ; the nightingale, rather an over-rated bird, I fancy, never ventures west of the Axe, and some other species of familiar songsters are not com- mon ; but, however that may be, never, in the course of a life not very long, though varied enough, have I heard such inspiriting and continuous' singing as that May and June. After the embittered strife of London, and the dingy skies and noisy streets of Bir- airingham, there was a seductiveness, a peacefulness, in those Devon rambles that I can never forget. Seldom did I meet any other wanderer, and for hours I seemed to have the country all to myself. To me, though I knew country life perfectly, having passed my childhood in a village, — it was a new experience, and as I listened to the rich notes of the blackbird and the throstle, the warble of the robin, the blackcap, the whitethroat and the hedge accentor,, the melodious trill of the skylark, and the clear ringing call of the cuckoo, I wondered what country life would be worth without its birds. More brilliant climates than ours can be found ; lands too where the vegetation, the scenery as a whole, and the mountains and forests have indescribable attractions, but where can you find such verdant valleys and deep sunnyTern- adorned lanes as in Devon, or on the Welsh Borders, on one of those days {alas, so rare) when, as Lord Lytton says, all is so calm and beautiful below, and so blue and bright above ; one of those English summer days with no peers elsewhere. I was once hurrying to America, and in the train sat a Mormon elder, a prosaic enough person, intent on money- getting and making converts, but when he spoke of English woodland scenery, the American, who had visited many lands and mixed with many strange people, became almost eloquent ; his unprepossessing, face lighted up, his dull eye brightened, and he poured forth a torrent of praise on scenes so beautiful and peace-giving, that he doubted if the rest of the world contained anything like them; he, at any rate, had seen nothing to compare with them, nor have I. You cannot study birds in a museum : no matter how admirably the little creatures have been stuffed, nor how faithful the adherence to natural form and. bearing; the resemblance is really not closer than, between a corpse and a living, moving man. The only place to study birds is in their native haunts, loving them as did St. Francis, knowing them as did Mrs. Schimmelpenninck. Animals instinctively find out those who love them and feel for them, and they remember their friends with a tenacity rarely ap- proached by human friendships. Think of Sir Walter Scott's love for his dogs, and of their attach- ment to him— happy if only he noticed them, and content to wait for hours for the walk so greatly enjoyed. Once get the affection of a dog and you may count upon it : it knows no diminution, no change, and ends only with its life. In the rapturous song of the happy birds in May and June lies half the pleasure of a country ramble : the winter gloom is over, the foliage in the south- west is at its best, the decline of the year, with its golden harvest and lengthening shadows, is not come ; and the birds, forgetful of the past and ignorant of the future, make the best of their opportunities. A little thoughtfulness in feeding birds in frosty weather would preserve the lives of immense numbers. Many species cannot eat crumbs, but require animal food, and for their benefit I shall introduce a letter that appeared in the "Times" on this subject. It is dated January 24th, and signed J. P. Nunn, and refers to some letters on the supply of food in winter: it speaks for itself. "In the i6 HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP. interest of little birds, may I add the word meat to berries? For some years, in cold weather, I have been in the habit of feeding little birds, and, in addition to their breakfast of bread and corn, I give them, as a standing dish a joint or two of beef, which I hang in a tree well out of the way of cats. The first supply of several pounds which I hung up at the beginning of December, is now quite exhausted, nothing being left but the bone. New Zealand mutton is not dear at 7.\d. a pound, but meat as much to the taste of my feathered guests may be had at half that price. I fear birds have more enemies than friends, but if only one friend in each parish would feed them in this way a great number would be saved from starvation in severe weather," Often in other days I have sat looking over the restless waves of the sea surrounding Lundy, when the birds had come in and the great gulls and Solan geese were darting like rays of light over the water below me, or soaring far above my head, and though the musicaLnotes of the Crediton and Exeter lanes did not fall in such rich variety on my ear, I watched with keen interest the huge birds intent on their business, untiring in their activity, and investing the landscape and the sea-scape, which might otherwise have been common-place enough, with a charm pecu- liarly its own. Few birds are more majestic than the Solan goose, which, in rapidly decreasing numbers, breeds on Lundy — the lowest latitude, report says, where it ijiakes its nest ; as it sails along over the deep green waters, in the bright sunshine, it conveys a sense of tremendous power, of lordly contempt for space and time that makes feeble mortals envy it. Half-an-hour and those powerful pinions would traverse the distance from Lundy to Barnstaple, an hour or a little more and its vast strength would bear it to Cardiff or St. David's Cathedral : it is its own express train, and, calm or windy, dark or clear, its rapidity of flight and indifference to distance never desert it. Only think of the keenness of observation and acute intelligence of birds : watch them eating crumbs scattered for them outside a window, and then admit how frolicsome are their gambols, how much character their conduct discloses. Fruit in Chili and other parts of South America is reported to have been in 1887, left entirely untouched by birds, while the sheep and cattle which were imprudent enough to feast upon it, paid with their lives for their temerity. These facts rest upon the high authority of the "Pacific Archives of Medicine and Surgery," and prove that the unfailing instinct of birds with respect to the wliolesomeness of fruit is, as Michelet remarks, in his great work on birds, frequently an excellent guide for human beings. It is possible, though far from proved, that the peculiarities in the fruit of different years may have something to do with the outbreak and varying mortality of cholera epidemics. We hardly understand, many of us, how supremely happy and busy birds are. No human community is more actively engaged ; no man or woman goes to work with such merry voice and unaffected delight. It is a sad thought that birds of prey, in the no doubt wise economy of nature, destroy enormous numbers of little songsters every year. It has been computed that 20,000 sparrow-hawks live in the United Kingdom ; if they, on the average, consume two little birds a day apiece, not fewer than 14,000,000 are thus destroyed every year. That we cannot help, but we can prevent the wanton and objectless destruction of these little messengers of good and peace. No fashion more hideous, more savouring of savage instincts and barbarous tastes can be conceived than adorning the hat, and fastening up the dress with dead birds. Ostrich plumes are undoubtedly most beautiful, and as they are now produced solely for purposes of dress on the great ostrich farms of the Cape, their use may pass without question, but to pin on a goldfinch, a yellow-hammer, a robin — though this atrocity I have never seen — a chaffinch, or a green linnet, is enough to make us wonder if we are more enlightened and refined than some Indian Brave decorating his neck with a string of the formidable claws of the grizzly bear. The great feature of bird- life is its constant movement. Watch a bird hopping across the lawn, mark its bright eye, observe its graceful actions and jDerfect symmetry of form, and then, when you have shot it and put a stop for ever to the quick beatings of its happy little heart, go up and look at the limp, tiny form lying still and bleeding on the ground : The contrast is too painful to dwell upon. It is more startling, because human life is confessedly so full of sorrow, than seeing some superbly proportioned and active man in the midst of his labours, and soon after standing by his bedside and gazing on the cold rigid face of death : all the hopes and fears of life over : that marvellous mechan- ism, the most perfect and complicated structure in the world, out of gear, and the spirit that gave beauty and interest to that glorious form and active mind gone on its last long journey we know not where. But the human being hopes that for him there remains a hereafter, a country where, though work will never cease, it will be less exhausting and worrying than here : a land where there will be rest ; where, in short, the weary struggler will find that peace which the storm-tost soul of Dante sought in vain on earth. The little bird may have no such future. His brief existence perhaps ends here, and when his bright eye dims and his warm heart becomes cold and still, his enjoyment may be for ever over. Destroyed for the good of man, killed to supply necessary food, less objection may be made, but slaughtered to bedeck the bonnets and hats of people who make themselves hideous in consequence, who jjerchance have never seen the bird at home in his early summer happiness, who pay little heed to his fascinating ways, and care HARD WJCKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. 17 oiothing for his surroundings, that is indeed too terrible. A touching and well-known passage occurs -Jn Thomas de Quincey's works, in which he patheti- cally describes the death of a feeble little bird, and the not unnatural emotions which its last attempt to flutter and sing called forth. No wonder ! And when we think of what country life owes to birds, when I remember the unmixed pleasure they have given me, the peace which the merry songs bring to the soul, I greatly marvel that anyone, calling himself civilised and refined, can seek pleasure in killing the winged messengers, which seem to belong more to Heaven than earth, and whose wholesale destruction would transform the melodious groves and mossy lanes of England into something like the silent, uninteresting and depressing wilds of Australia. There are few pictures more fascinating than the life-long devotion of Gilbert White, of Selborne, to the denizens of that secluded and little changed district. The closeness of his observations, the accuracy of his generalisations and conclusions have never been improved upon : and his graceful letters remain, and always must remain, among the treasures of the language. Again, look at VVaterton's life in the country, reading the mysteries which none knew better how to unravel, and, lastly, Frank Buckland's passionate love for animal life. There was nothing coarse or mean in his reverent eyes in anything that had come from the hand of the Creator. Animals, birds and insects were to him fellow-creatures, fellow-servants, fellow-worshippers of God. Then poor Thomas Edward, the humble Scotch naturalist, of Low Shore, Banff; who can refuse to sympathise v/ith his self-sacrificing study of nature ? Night after night in that bleak northern latitude watching creatures which could not be approached by day, and lying for hours in a cramped position not to alarm the timid little things that centuries of oppression had taught to regard man as their bitterest foe. Does not that poor shoe-maker's life teach a lesson of constancy and untiring industry that more than redeems the study of nature from the neglect at times heaped upon it ? The love of birds doubles the joy of living. Wimborne. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., is about to deliver a course of lectures on the Practical Study of the Geology of the Country round London. This course is given at the request of students of the London Geological Field Class, and information concerning them may be obtained from Mr. William Dunn, 21 King William Street, Strand, W.C. Royal Institution. — The following are the lecture arrangements before Easter : — Prof. Dewar, six lectures (adapted to a juvenile auditory) on Clouds and Cloudland ; Prof G. J. Romanes, twelve lectures constituting the second part of a course on Before and After Darwin (the evidences of organic evolution and the theory of natural selection) ; Prof. J. W. Judd, four lectures on the Metamorphoses of Minerals ; Dr. Sidney Martin, four lectures on the poisonous action of Albuminoid Bodies, including those formed in digestion ; Prof. J. H. Middleton, four lectures on Houses and their Decoration, from the Classical to the Mediaeval Period ; Prof. Ernst Pauer, four lectures on the Characters of the Great Composers and the Characteristics of their Works (with illustrations on the pianoforte) ; and eight lectures by the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh on Experimental Optics (polarisation ; the wave theory). The Friday evening meetings will begin on January 25th, when a discourse will be given by Prof. G. H. Darwin ; succeeding discourses will probably be given by Prof. W. C. Mcintosh, Sir William Thomson, Prof. A. W. Riicker, Mr. Harold Crichton Brown, Prof. Oliver Lodge, Prof. Archibald Geikie, the Rev. Alfred Ainger, the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, and other gentlemen. We are sorry to have to record the death of another valued contributor to our columns — Mr. Henry Lee, F.L. S., of aquarium fame, at the age of sixty years. He was known also in scientific literature for his entertaining book entitled "The Octopus; or the Devil-Fish of Fiction and Fact." Mr. Lee was the first curator of the Brighton Aquarium. It has been found that the retina absorbs light in much the same way that luminous paint becomes " fluorescent." This was beautifully demonstrated as follows : — The gaze was directed for some time at an object brightly illuminated by an arc light, or at the arc itself, and then the eye was turned to a camera — an accurate photograph of the object seen was the result. The experiment can be performed with the fresh dead eye of an animal, and the gleam of a cat's eye in the dark is probably due to this light- absorbing power. Any one who has examined an eye will be aware of the fact that there is a brightly iridescent coat at the back, known as the tapetum. The function of this is not at all obvious, but some time ago a theory was started which then seemed improbable that this served as a reflector to catch and concentrate the faint light of a starlight night, and condense it into a beam to illuminate and render more visible objects towards which the eye was directed. The present discovery shows that this old theory was not altogether without foundation. Messrs. Swinburne have brought out a new invention for obtaining filaments for incandescent lamps from cabbage leaves. The essential novelty of the process consists in employing vegetable fibre for the '* filament " or thread. Almost any plant leaf will do : but, after experiment, it has been found that the leaf of the common cabbage answers the i8 HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. purpose best, as it is tough, and fairly homogeneous in structure. Each leaf is first separately examined by polarised light to detect any flaws or holes, the smallest pin-hole rendering the leaf practically useless. It is then soaked in vinegar for twenty-four hours in order to neutralise the alkali in the fibre, and, after thorough washing, is ready for the next process. It is now laid out flat in a solution of mercury bromide ; a rod of specially-prepared shellac is then taken, and, after being raised to a high potential condition by treatment with a silk exciter, it is put into contact with the mercury solution. By this means the leaf is gradually electrolised, the potassium and sodium in the fibre combining with the mercury to form a coating of amalgam. In this state the leaf is a capital conductor, and the inventors have even succeeded in using it as a substitute for lead in secondary batteries. A heavy current is now passed through it so as to carbonise the vegetable fibre, the current being increased till every trace of amalgam is volatalised. It is then cut into filaments, and each is forced through a draw plate. As it is not of sufficient "resistance," resort has to be had to a process called " flashing." The consists in passing a mixture of ammonia and hydrogen gases over it while it is heated by the electric current. The resistance rapidly rises, and at the proper point the current is automatically cut off by an ingenious switch arrange- ment. The filament is now bent into horse-shoe form, and is ready to seal into the bulb. Perhaps the most important discovery made by Messrs. Swin- burne, is the enormous increase in light that can be obtained for a given current by employing an atmos- phere of slightly compressed oxygen in place of the complete vacuum hitherto customary ; and though by this means the life of the lamp may be slightly shortened, it is not considered important in view of the great gain in light. If this process, beautifully simple as a laboratory experiment, should prove commercially successful, large quantities of picked and selected leaf will be required, and Messrs. Swin- burne contemplate inviting tenders from some of the leading growers in the county. The bulk of the plant has been already erected, and Messrs. Cromp- ton & Co., of Chelmsford, who are working overtime, have got the machinery well in hand, and hope to complete delivery by the 24th inst. MICROSCOPY. "Journal of Microscopy."— (Edited by Alfred Allen.) The last number of this well-known journal contains the following papers, besides a host of notes, notices, &c. : — " The Air-bladder of Fishes considered as a Degenerate Lung," by Mrs. Alice Boddington ; " Development of the Tadpole," by J. W. Gate- house ; "Fogs," by Beatrice Taylor; "Economic Entomology," by James A. Forster ; " On the Male Generative Organs of Two Species of Cypris (C Cina-a and C. tninuta)" by T. B. Rosseter ; " Pseudo- Helminths," by Jabez Hogg ; " The l^Iicroscope and, How to use it," by V. A. Lalham. Another Evening with the Eoyal Micro- scopical Society. — The Microscopical Society may congratulate themselves upon the success with which their "scientific evening," held in the library of King's College, on the aSth of November, passed off, in spite of the unpropitious weather. The principal item of novelty was the display, on a screen, in front of the o.\y-hydrogen lantern, in a darkened room adjoining, of numerous negatives of microscopic objects photographed from the originals direct : — diatoms, bacilli, insect preparations, pathological specimens and botanical sections, all furnished illus- trations of how soon, and how well. Dr. Crookshank's suggestions and example, at a former "scientific evening," had been followed up by Mr. A. Pringle and Mr. Charles Lees Curtis, who both deserve great credit. This display was the finest of the kind that I have ever seen or heard of. Only fancy ! the image of half a frustule of Amphipleiira pellucida was thrown on to the screen, so as to appear three feet long, or more, with the markings as distinctly shown as the bars of a Venetian window-blind. I should guess the magnification at not less than. 20,000 diameters. Has anything been done like this before ? I think not. I could mention many other objects they showed in rapid succession equally well ; but the naming of this one, so admirably displayed, gives an idea of the advanced stage of micro-photography these gentlemen have reached. In the library, very many curious things were to be- seen. There was a fine specimen of Braula ccccUy the rare parasite of the hive bee (something like a. small sheep tick), shown by Mr. Mainland. He referred me to an article in SciENCE-GossiP (May 188 1), by Mr. Fedarb, on Braula ; and I have looked it up, with pleasure ; but I think Mr. Mainland might perhaps have something more to say about the insect, if he tried. Then there were numerous clever dissections of insects, one in particular, by Mr. Fitcli (of the golden-banded fly), was universally admired, Mr. Rousselet had a new rotifer ; Liuiiiias Cormiella. There were also other exhibits of rotifers, &c., by several gentlemen. Eye sections were numerous, of moth, spider, tadpole, and lamprey (pineal eye), Mr. Beck showed Aniphiplcura pellucida, and the cyclosis in Vallisneria. Messrs. Watson had an excellent display of fine pathological specimens ; and a grand slide of arranged diatoms, butterfly scales, &c. Mr. R. T. Lewis had a drawing of the rare coccid, Lccamiuiii acnminatioii, from Biitish Guiana, but his most interesting contribution was a number of unknown larva-, from Natal, alive. They appeared to be lepidopterous, and were remarkable from the fact that they had constructed portable houses for HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P. 19 themselves, out of the grass stems upon which they feed, of an extraordinary character, looking much like the cases of caddis worms. It appears that the Caffirs regard the swallowing of one of these grubs by any ox that may be feeding on the grass where they live, as certain death to the poor ox. Within certain limits, upon the table before him, Mr. Lewis •allowed these curious grubs to trot about, and they yielded no end of interest to the observers. Then, there was the pupa of a cat flea, showing, apparently, that the statement Mr. Lowe makes in his monograph of the anatomy, &c., of the blow-fly, that "all the tissues of the larva undergo degeneration, and the imaginal tissues are re-developed from cells which ■originate from the disintegrated parts of the larva," (page 116), holds good as regards the flea also. Mr. Michael told me that this view is pretty generally accepted by scientific people, as applying to all, or ;almost all, insects. Well, it may be ; but I know one person, claiming to be thoroughly acquainted with all that is worth knowing about insects, who smiles incredulously when I talk to him of this fact. Mr. Michael had on view a very beautiful dissection •of a small Staphylinus. The Rev. T. King showed two fine specimens of flies in amber under his microscope. How many thousands of years had they been entombed there ? Ah ! and yet they are as ^^erfectly preserved as if they had been done up in balsam only yesterday. Several Fellows had re- markable specimens of foraminifera, &c. Mr. Priest showed tiie inner casts of some of these organisms. There was also a living spider exhibited by Mr. R. Facer, showing the action of the spinnerets. Mr. E. J. Smith showed numerous fine sections of rare minerals, and Mr. Suffolk, a scale oi Morphomeiielaiis, under very high magnification. —3". J. Mclntire. Frontal Sac of the MusciD.t:.— The author of this important paper is Mr. W, Jenkinson, of the Sheffield Microscopical Society. ZOOLOGY. Anodonta Cygnea.— Ml". Roberts seems to have •expected me to have replied to some strictures made by a correspondent on my paper, entitled "A Day's Shell Collecting," which was published in SciENCE- GossiP last year. I had already virtually replied in my article, since I cannot class Mr. Webb with anyone else but Dr. Woodward for his knowledge of what constitutes a species and a variety. I scarcely then thought it worth my trouble, and I had not now said anything had not Mr. Roberts again opened the subject, especially, as Mr. Webb so well defended the points that ruffled him as to decry with all his force the " variety-mongerers," and at the same time want to make a variety of a species, a point of impudence which I may say they have never reached. In point of fact, Mr. Webb's ambition seems to me that of becoming a king, as it were, for his good works, among the race of conchologists whom he apparently so heartily despises. I can but refer Mr. Webb, since I am not going to occupy your space in teaching the elementary principles of zoological nomenclature, to one of the more modern zoological text-books, as Claus, for example, in order to give him more definite ideas as to what constitutes a species and what a variety- Mr. Roberts has very rightly remarked that "Dr. Woodward and a few other antediluvians . . . might as well argue that all the species of continental anodons are one, and that Unio tu /nidus, Uiiio pidortim, &c., are all one," and I might add to these all the Pisidia too, and Limuixa pcregra, and LimncEa aitricularia also. I am here again only going to make the dogmatic assertion, that A cygiica differs in its anatomy very essentially from A. anatina. I am not going to state these differences, since I shall doubtless publish on them before long in " The Journal of Conchology." But, in the meantime, Mr. Webb can easily dissect one or two for himself, and then when he has gained a scientific knowledge of what he is talking about we shall be pleased to hear from him again, A personal know- ledge of a subject from actual work is of far greater value than raking up a host of old authorities, Mr, Webb. Had you been a little more modern, you would have known that on p. 65 of the fifth volume of " The Annals and Magazine of Natural History," Mr. Lloyd described some anatomical differences between Anodonta cygnea and A. anatina. — y, IV. Williams. Anodonta Cygnea, Linne. — Mr. George Roberts appears to forget that opinion, however weighty, is not evidence ; and that authorities were quoted in my note not to prove that Anodonta anatina was a bad species, but to show that a statement to such effect could not rightly be called an " uncanonical assertion." Again, the fact that earlier conchologists confounded together two species of Helix is no argument whatever that they also confounded two species of Anodonta. The point in question depends upon the recognised meaning of the word Species. Zoologists and botanists of the present day know perfectly well that there is naturally no strict line of demarkation between closely allied forms which they place together and call a Genus ; but, for convenience in classification, the name species is kept by them to denote a form which can be separated from its rela- tions by well-ascertained anatomical diff'erences. Unfortunately, there are many shell-collectors who do not know this, and the few that have mastered it no more understand why and for what the term "variety" was instituted than the mass of their brethren do. The reason is not very doubtful, for these collectors follow Uke sheep the precepts of certain Continental and the Leeds schools, which 20 HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. recognise what they call a variety created by a dis- ciple ignorant of Zoology out of some casual variation, interesting, perhaps, but so insignificant that the name of its describer — who is usually conceited enough to allow it to be printed — is covered with ridicule. An example of ignorance, worse, perhaps, than this, is to be seen in the note next but one before that of Mr. George Roberts, for here its writer says the balance is in favour of according Helix hoj-teitsis generic rank, — Wilfred Mark Webb. H. ViRGATA, VAR. Alba. — It may interest Mr. Brockton Tomlin to know that I have specimens of this variety from Dorking, Rusk, co. Dublin, and have lately received two from Mr. Thos. F. Burrows, found at Brading, Isle of Wight. From the Dublin locality I have the same variety of H. Pisana, a still more uncommon shell.—/'. G. Fenn, Islnvorth. BOTANY. The British Moss-Flora. — All botanists will be glad to hear that Part II. of this remarkable work has just been issued. It is devoted to the important family Grimmiaceffi, and contains eight exquisitely drawn plates showing the characters and microscopical structures of each species. Never before has our native moss-flora been so carefully figured and described, and that by an acknowledged authority on the subject. These parts can only be obtained from the author, Dr. R. Braithwaite, at 303 Clapham Road. Plants near Clifton.— In Science-Gossip, November, page 259, I gave a list of upwards of fifty wild flowers noticed in a day's ramble in the vicinity of Clifton. In Science-Gossip, December, page 279, Mr. James Walter White disputed the identity of six plants in courteous yet authoritative words ; in reply, I beg to state as follows : (i.) Pimpinella jtiagna.- — The specimen I alluded to was not actually from the gorge of the Avon. It was a plant of great size growing in a cutting within a few miles of Clifton Bridge (Somerset side). I stated my reason for applying the specific name, and still maintain the opinion. I was puqDOsely vague with precise habitat in this and other cases ; I have learned that it is necessary, to prevent extermination. (2.) Anthrisciis vulgaris. — I think Mr. White might find this plant next season on the waste grounds beyond Leigh Court. (3.) Calamiiitha nepeta. — Tlie plant I gathered was a distinct variety of C. officinalis, new to me. Having identified the specimen on my own account, I forwarded it to a collector with an exten- sive herbarium. It was new to him ; and he replied, " There is no doubt about your C. nepeta." Perhaps Mr. White will search the quarries he knows so well for confirmation of this. It may be a new plant will be added to the local flora. (4.) " Wormwood " was a loose term ; Artemisia vulgaris is what I saw. (5.) Diplotaxis 7nuraUs certainly appears under two distinct forms at Clifton. I am loath to believe the two species named in my notes are not there ; the leaves and stems are so different. If Mr. White, knowing the district well, is quite certain, I will accept the correction. (6.) Thalictrum alpinum was a palpable slip for T. flavum. I cannot account for having written the wrong specific name. It "met the eye " at some distance from Clifton, not on the downs. I deliberately mis-stated precise locality, perhaps wrongly ; for I did not at the time realise that Somerset and Gloucester were divided by the Avon, and that, by transferring plants from one side to the other, the distribution of the two counties' flora was interfered with. With one glaring excep- tion, my notes were, I think, substantially correct. I am obliged to Mr. White for giving me the oppor- tunity of avowing the error. I do not claim great critical knowledge ; the wider my experience, the more profoundly ignorant I feel. " We see through a glass darkly," picking up what grains of learning we may attain. I hope this will be also considered *' bright and chatty." — Wayfarer. Folk-lore of Plants. — In some parts of the Principality, a common Welsh name for the fox- gloves (folk's-gloves) is Menyg yr Ellyll (comp. elQ? i.e. the fairies' gloves. — G. Rees, Aberystwyth. White Varieties op Plants. — I generally make a note of variations from the normal colour in plants when I see them, and a few remarks on the subject, perhaps, will not be considered out of place. For four years past I have observed a number of white specimens of Stachys palustris, the flowers of the usual size, and pure white in colour. The normal type flourished near, but not in the same clump. A further departure occurred, which would seem almost structural ; the upper lip of the corolla, instead of being entire, as I believe it always is in the coloured Stachys palustris, was deeply cleft. I should be glad to know if this form has been observed elsewhere by field botanists. Veronica charncrdrys sometimes sports to white ; a patch in a meadow near here has shown white flowers for three successive years. The flowers are distinctly smaller than the blue specimens which grow among them, but from different roots. I am inclined to think that cross fertilisation may be the cause here, pollen from some white flower near (not Veronica) affecting the colour ; certainly soil has nothing to do in accounting for the change. Gera- nium niolle, too, 1 have often seen growing with pure white blooms in company with plants of the usual colour. The question is a very interesting one, and needs much fuller investigation. — F. J. Porter, Per- ranai-iuorthal, Cornwall. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, 21 GEOLOGY, &C. Discovery of a Conifer in Chalk. — I have recently found in the chalk of our neighbourhood, some interesting specimens of cones in a conifer, allied to Taxus. R. Etheridge, F.R.S., of the British Museum, thus writes:— " The chalk specimen is a cone probably of a Taxus.'' — B, Fiff'ard, Hemcl- Hempstead. The Geologists' Association. — The last num- ber of the Proceedings of the above society contains the following papers : — " On Palaeozoic Arcidae," by J. Logan Lobley ; "Notes on Pterodactyles," by E, T, Newton; "Observations on the Natural History of Gypsum," by J. G. Goodchild ; and, ■"The Clays of Bedfordshire," by A. C. G. Cameron. It also contains short reports of the ordinary meetings. Preserving Gault Fossils. — I should advise J. H. A. Verinder to apply to his fossils, as soon as possible after they are drj', a thin coat of ' ' Picture Mastic Varnish," using a soft camel's-hair brush. I have now some fossils taken from the gault at Folke- stone nearly twenty years ago, in a perfect state of preservation, whereas those that did not undergo the process, crumbled away in the course of a few weeks. — W. E. Windtis. The Underground Geology of London. — At a recent meeting of the Geological Society, Mr. W. "VVhitaker, F.R.S., F.G.S., exhibited a series of specimens from the ,deep boring at Streatham, and made some remarks upon the results obtained, of which -the following is an abstract : — After passing through lo feet of gravel, &c., 153 of London clay, 88J of Lower London Tertiaries, 623 of chalk (the least thickness in any of the deep borings in and near London), 28| of Upper Greensand, and 188J of gault, at the depth of io8i| feet hard limestone, .mostly with rather large oolitic grains, was met with. This, with alternations of a finer character, sandy and clayey, lasted for only 38^ feet, being much less than the thickness of the Jurassic beds, either at Richmond or at Meux's boring. The general character of the bores showed a likeness to the Forest Marble, and the occurrence of Ostrca acuminata agreed therewith. At the depth of 11 20 feet the tools entered a set of beds of much the same character as those that had 'been found beneath Jurassic beds at Richmond, and beneath gault at Kentish Town and at Crossness. The softer and more clayey components were not brought up ; the harder consist of fine-grained ■compact sandstones, greenish-grey, sometimes with purplish mottlings or bandings, and here and there wholly of a dull reddish tint. With these there occur hard, clayey, and somewhat sandy beds, which are not calcareous, whilst most of the sandstones are. Thin veins of calcite are sometimes to be seen, and at others small concretionary calcareous nodules; but no trace of a fossil has been found. The bedding is shown, both by the bands of colour, and by the tendency of the stone to fracture, to vary generally from about 20° to 30°. In the absence of evidence it is hard to say what these beds are, and the possibilities of their age seem to range from Trias to Devonian. It is to be hoped that this question may be solved, as on it depends that of the possibility of the presence of Coal-measures in the district ; and Messrs. Docwra, the contractors of the works, have with great liberality undertaken to continue the boring-operations at their own expense for at least another week. ' Details of the section will be given in a forthcoming Geological Survey Memoir, in which, moreover, the subject of the old rocks under London will be treated somewhat fully. NOTES AND QUERIES. The Sunflower. — Are Mr. Lett's observations to be taken as conclusive, and the common belief which Moore gave expression to in the well-known lines, " As the sunflower turns to her God when he sets. The same look which she turned when he rose — " to be dismissed as a poet's fancy? Dr. M. C. Cooke in his very interesting little book entitled " Freaks and Marvels of Plant Life," referring to heliotropism, observes as follows : ' ' Sir Joseph Hooker says, that when traversing the prairies with Professor Asa Gray, in 1877, he watched the position of the leaves of many hundred plants from the window of a railway car, and after some time persuaded himself that the younger, more erect leaves especially, had their faces parallel approximately to the meridian line. At the same time he says that he convinced himself that the flower heads of the varieties of the great Heliaiithoid Composite, such as that which we call the sunflower, that grew in hosts on the prairies did follow the sun's motion in the heavens to a very appreciable degree, their morning and evening positions being reversed."* A neighbour of my own is a grower of sunflowers. He is a very intelligent and observant man, whose chief delight is the cultivation of his garden. He assured me that he is convinced from careful observa- tion that the sunflower turns towards the sun. I suggested that we should take a turn in his garden, as the sun was shining brightly at the time. Every sunflower, except one, in his garden had the face of its flowers turned towards the south whence the sun was shining at the time. I only mention this as a casual, and, if you please, veiy inadequate piece of evidence and ask you to take it quantum valcat. The subject is so replete with interest that I have felt justified in sending you the above remarks, in the hope that some of your readers, who have time at command, will be induced to make careful obsei^va- tions, and give us the benefit of them. — W. G. IVheatcroft. A Good Hunting-Ground for Orchids in Kent. — On very many occasions, both in late spring and early summer, I have spent a consider- able time on the hills and in the woods of Kent — botanizing. In the course of these rambles, the locali- * J. D. Hooker, in " Gardener's Chronicle," January 15, 1881 . 22 MA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. ties of which are widespread, in one respect none has yielded me such an amount of interest, within a very narrow limit, as the district just round the small, peaceful village of Crundale, which lies nestling in a valley about two and a half miles east of Wye, and two miles south of Chilham. The village lies, as I have stated, in a valley ; one long range of downs runs on its eastern side, and, on its western, another range, both of which have thick woods on their sides in many parts. The exact locality of which I wish to speak occupies an area of very few miles — merely a radius of not more than one mile from the village itself, and my object for drawing atten- tion to the spot is that it is one of the richest for orchids which, in the small space, it has been my good fortune to visit. Amongst the masses of flowers that carpet the woods, Listera ovata (common wavy blade) grows profusely, its long dense spike of pale greenish flowers, and its two large ovate leaves, growing opposite each other at a height of about four inches from the ground, forming a very conspicuous object amongst the tangling underwood. By its side, between the bluebells and primroses, from amongst the thick bed of Alercurialis perennis, I have gathered quantities of Orchis inasciila (early purple orchis), whose magnificent spikes of purple blossoms form such an exquisite contrast of colour to all the plants surrounding them. One drawback there is to this plant — it has a most offensive scent. .Plentiful too is the lesser butterfly orchis {Habcnaria hifolia) and the spotted palmate orchis {0. macidata), the former bearing a handsome lax spike of delicate yellowish white blossoms — deliciously scented towards night — the latter, a short dense spike of rose-coloured flowers. The leaves of the latter are the handsomest of all the orchids, I consider ; they are of a beautiful soft tone of green, with rich deep purplish-brown spots — the whole very glossy. In a sheltered hollow on the downs above Crundale, on the east about a quarter of a mile beyond the church, is a spot covered with Orchis fusca (great dark-winged orchis), both a rare and local treasure. I found two specimens of the same plant on the opposite hills, but they were nothing like so fine. This plant grows about 1-3 feet hi"h,has large oval oblong leaves, mostly radical, and a short dense, obtuse spike, usually of a deep maroon brown colour at the apex, where the flowers are unopen. Below the flowers are a delicate pale purple, sometimes almost white. Its scent is something like vanilla. Ophrys apifcra (bee orchis), Op/irys araiiifera (early spider orchis), and Aceras anthropophora (man orchis) grow abundantly on the same downs, just at the foot of the hills especially. All are local and, with the exception of O. apifera, not over common. Of Hcrviininm moii- orchis (musk orchis) and Epipactis latifolia (broad- leaved helleborine) only one specimen of each has come to my hand ; the latter, though, is fairly plentiful. Gymnadcnia conopsca is common. Other kinds do grow there, but, as yet, I have not found them. I have taken the opportunity of writing these few lines in order to let those, who did know before of a good orchid district, know where to hunt if they wish to procure good specimens. — K. E. Styan. Flowers for Drawing-room and Boudoir. — In the selection of vases for these rooms, those of medium size should never be exceeded, unless the room be of unusual proportions. We much prefer vases of small dimensions for every-day use ; any vase that is large enough to hold an ordinary -sized bouquet bein" ample, in our opinion. On special occasions those of larger size could be used, perhaps, with advantage when it is desirable to congregate a larger quantity of flowers together. Greater variety in form and material of the vases that are utilised would be admissible, no two in fact need be alike in any way. Many vases that would be too massive and heavy for the dinner-table could be turned to a good account for special occasions. For general purposes glass vases will be found the best in every way. Large-sized specimen glasses are very useful for sprays of Orchids, or any special flowers that it is thought desirable to keep by themselves. Vases of china or other heavy material require greater discrimination in the selection of flowers. Those in which dark shades predominate should be chosen for light-coloured flowers, and vice vcrsd. Take, for instance, one of the gorgeous blossoms of Magnolia grandiflora ; for this a vase either black or of dark colour should be chosen, whilst for the Pseonias with flowers of light shades of pink and rose, we would prefer a dark-blue vase. With a bunch of dark-coloured roses we should seek for a receptacle of pale tint. For the tea-scented roses of light shades a vase of a bronzy or pale-brown colour would give a good contrast. Rustic baskets look ex- ceedingly pretty when not over-crowded, and are suited for roses, primroses, daffodils, and anemones, with other similar flowers. These baskets, too, have a most pleasing effect with a few bulbs placed in them during the spring-time, and some Selaginella to carpet the same, or a small pot of a dwarf-growing fern placed in the centre. A few roots of the primrose, or other spring- flowering plants, could be chosen as a change, with nice fresh moss or shoots of a small-leaved ivy to entwine about the same. Those flowers which are in most cases only to be had with very short stems,, such as the Stephanotis and Gardenias, can be advan- tageously arranged in a flat dish, placing some moss in the latter with the necessary quantity of water. In such dishes a few flowers of the Gardenias, and the tea-scented rose Madame Falcot,'look very well, each with a little of their own foliage. — From CassclVs Popular Gardening for December. Egg-drill and Blow-pipe. — I should be much obliged if any reader would tell me where I can pro- cure an egg-drill and blow-pipe, such as are figured in " Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural His- tory Objects." Also, is there any great advantage in. covering the hole of a blown egg with paper? — K.D. The Mild Weather. — As evidence of the mild weather which prevailed in November and December last, the following list of twenty-seven wild plants found in full flower on November 25th, within a short walk will show : Ranwicitlus acris, L. (buttercup) ; Ranunculus repens, L. ; Sisymbrium officinale, L. (hedge mustard) ; Sisy/nbrium alliaria, Scop. (Jack by the hedge) ; Brassica campestris, L. ; Capsella Bursa- Pastoris, DC. (shepherd's purse) ; Cerastiiun triviale. Link ; Stellaria media, L. (chickweed) ; Stellaria- holostea, L. (stitchwort) ; Areitaria serpyllifolia, L. ; Geranium dissectuin, L. ; Geranium Robcrtiaiuim, L. (Herb Robert) ; Trifolium procumbens, L. ; Hedera helix, L. (ivy) ; Galium aparine, L. (cleavers) ; Bellis perennis, L. (daisy) ; Matricaria chamomilla, L. (wild chamomile) ; Senecio vulgaris, L. (groundsel) ; Taraxacum offuinalc, Wig. (dandelion) ; Sonchus. oleraceus, L. ; (sow thistle) ; Hieracium murorum, L. ; Hieracium sylvaticum, Sm. ; Veronica agrestis, L. ; Laminum purpureum, L. (red nettle) ; Lamium album, L. (white dead-nettle); Urtica dioica, L. (stinging nettle); Euphorbia pephts, L. (spurge). — R. Scott. Nightjar. — A pair of these birds were observed at Heslington, near York, as late as the third week in November. One of them was picked up in the garden of Heslington Hall, having almost succumbed HARD WICKE ' S S CIENCE - G O SSIF. 23 to the severe weather. It revived on being warmed before the fire ; it was preserved by Mr. Allen, of York, and is now in the possession of Mr. Hornby, of Heslington. — J. A. IVhddon. Sand Pictures. — If J. M. C. will apply to Mr. Cotton, Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, I have no doubt he will be able to obtain the bottles of coloured sand arranged as pictures, at a moderate price. — W. E, IVindus. Strensall Common. — This notable Yorkshire locality has undergone a great change during the last two years, having been transformed into a military camp by the Government. Owing to draining opera- tions the ajjpearance of the surface has become entirely changed. The first bird to take alarm was the black- headed gull, which formerly bred here in immense numbers. All the extensive splashes or patches of marsh are now almost quite dry in summer, and the gulls have migrated to other commons in the district. The teal and wild duck appear to have also left their old summer haunts, though the latter appear regularly in the winter months. The little grebe and snipe are much scarcer, as also the redshank, although a few of the latter still breed on the common. Many of the rarer plants are found in greatly diminished numbers, and the extermination of some of them is probably only a matter of time. I searched in vain this summer for Andromeda polifolia, and we shall probably soon see the last of Drosera ititeriiudia, Hypericum elodes, Mentha pukgiiim, Radiola millegrana, Filularia glohilifera and others. Gcntiana ptictimonanthe appears to hold its ground so far. Some of the freshwater shells are already scarce. The very large examples of Litnnca stag)ialis and Planorbis corneics are not to be found now, but Limnea glabra and iruncahda are still very fine and abundant. I hear also that a portion of Askham Bog is about to be im- proved off the face of the earth ; several pools are to be filled up, and converted into grazing ground. This portion of the bog was a rich conchological resort, producing several rare shells, and I believe also some very good aquatic beetles. Fortunately the improve- ment will not extend as far as the haunts of Carex paradoxa, Myrica gals, Osvuttida regalis, Lastrea ihelyptcris, &c. It would be a severe blow to local naturalists to entirely lose this tract of aboriginal ground, immediately after the destruction of Strensall Common. — y. A. IVheldon. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un- i, tenelhiin, Pottea iriincata, Keckera crispa, Tctraplodon 7iiucoides, Hedwigia ciliata, Schistostega osmundacea, Grini- tnia apocarpa, var. rivulare, Racomitriuin laniiginosiim, Climaciiiin dendroides. Hyp. cordifoliuin, iincittatum, adiin- cum, comiimtatum, tnolhiscuiii. Wanted, many common mosses and lichens. — J. A. Wheldon, York. Wanted, British or foreign insects in spirit (correctly named), recent specimens. State wants ; good exchange in various un- mounted micro material ; many good things offered for suitable specimens. Address with list and sample — R. M., 24 Park Road, Clapham, London, S.W. "Nature," Vols. 23 and 24, bound, in splendid condition; what offers? Will take botanical micro slides, various, &c. — J. Hunter, Sea View, Buncrana, near Londonderry. L. stagnalis, very large, Buliinus acutjis, var. bczona of Bulimits aciiiiis, also H. virgata, and var. submaritima of H. virgata and L. glabra, also eggs of thrush, blackbird, starling, water-hen, partridge, missel thrush, &c. &c. De- siderata very numerous. — W. Hewett, 3 Wilton Terrace, Ful- ford Road, York. Wanted, Teall's "British Petrography," Phillips's "Ore Deposits," Daubree's " Geologic Experimentale," and the " Quarterly Journ. Geolog., Society " for Nov. 1883, and other numbers. — X. Y. Z., 103 Hill's Road, Cambridge. Offered, a well-preserved specimen of a scorpion, quite perfect and recent. Wanted, micro material, marine objects preferred, sponge spicules, or material of a similar character, alga or good zoophytes, British or foreign ; all must be correctly named, unmounted. — R. M., 24 Park Road, Clapham, London, S.W. Wanted, physiological and scientific micro slides in ex- change for polarising, opaque, and other popular objects. — Henry Ebbage, 344 Caledonian Road, London. Wanted, entomological material in quantity, suitable for microscopical mounting ; good micro slides or otherwise given in lieu. Communicate before sending. — H. Francis, 14 York Place, Clifton, Bristol. Wanted, fossils from crag, Woolwich beds, London clay, Thanet sands and Bracklesham beds, in exchange for those from the chalk, greensand, coal measures, and a few American eocene fossils ; also about sixty coloured plates of fossil shells. Send lists. — Geo. E. East, jun., 10 Basinghall Street, London, E.C. Offered, Vols, i., ii. and iii. of Cassell's "Technical Educator," bound edition. Wanted, natural history books, specimens (not entomological) or micro accessories. — G. P. Best, 33 First Avenue, Harrow Road, London, W. " Familiar Birds' Eggs and Nest<,' by H. G. Adams, with sixteen coloured plates, beautifully bound as new ; will ex- change for side-blown birds' eggs. Please send list of eggs in exchange to — Henry T. Booth, Upcerne Road, Chelsea. A FEW specimens of Euplcctella aspcrgilluin in exchange for scientific books, " Quekett Microscopical Journal," Vols. i. and ii., 2nd series, wanted particularly, or offers. — W. H. Harris, 44 Partridge Road, Cardiff. Offered. — L. C., 8th ed. : 229, 351, 552, 538, 662, 919, 931, 970, 986, 1046, 1162, 1269, 1330, 1335, and 1558, in exchange for others. — A. Sangster, Ivy Cottage, Cattie, Old Meldrum, N.B. Will exchange a small collection of about a hundred dif- ferent species of mosses and lichens, from Bt:lgium and Luxem- burg, for natural history specimens, siarfish or echinoderms preferred, not necessarily British. — Hugh B. Preston, 54 Lex- ham Gardens, Kensington, W. Will exchange unset British butterflies, also set specimens of the Apollo butterfly [Parnassias Apollo), for natural history specimens, starfish or echini preferred, not necessarily British. Hugh B. Preston, 54 Lcxham Gardens, Kensington, W. Hooker's "Student's British Flora," 2nd edit., VVatter's "Birds of Ireland," "Wild Life in a Southern County," &c., in exchange for other books, or offers. — Rev. W. W. Flemyng, Clonegam Rectory, Portlaw, co. Waterford. Any of the following eggs for clutches of many other species: clutches of sparrow hawk, kestrel, common buzzard, American robin, sedge warbler, gold crest, great tit, jackdaw, magpie, red-backed shrike, reed bunting, tree and meadow pipit, sky- lark, nightjar, golden-winged woodpecker, moor hen, coote, ringed plover, lapwing, curlew, sandpiper, common snipe, common, Arctic, sooty and Riippell's terns, kittiwake, common L. B. B. and G. B. B. gulls, great skua, little grebe, mute swans; and eggs of sheldrake, pheasant, partridge, hen harrier, honey buzzard, dipper, grasshopper and Dartford warblers, corn crake, water rail, oyster catcher, whimbrel, dunlin, puffin, razor bill, guillemot, stormy petrel. — J. B. Young, 2 Elgin Villas, Rodwell, Weymouth. Wanted, all or any of the following shells: Pholadidea papyracea, Pholas crispata, Scalaria Turtonce, lanthina cxigua, I. rotnndata, BucciniDit H ittnplireysiatium. Pinna pectinaia, P. rudis, Isocardia cor, five kinds q{ Fusiises,Pcctt'ii. glaber [iigrittus], Veneriipis iris, Gastrochcena ntodiolina, Anomia striata, A. patelliformis, Avicitla tarentina, Einar- gimila crassa, axxd. Xylop/iaga dorsalis. Good exchange given in other British shells, minerals, fossils, polished Devonian cora'.s and sponges, thin sections for micro purposes, &c. — A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth. Offered, upwards of seventy numbers of " Band of Hope Review," dating from 1881 to 1888 ; would make a good volume of interesting reading if bound together, or otherwise, in exchange for rare foreign stamps. — A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth. A duplicate collection of British mosses, over 300 species, correctly named and mounted, in exchange for foreign mosses, hepaticae or algae (algae especially wanted), or exchanges in these plants solicited. — J. Miles, 25 Sudeley Place, Kemp Town, Brighton. What offers for "Biological Atlas," "A Guide to the Prac- tical Study of Plants and Animals," 423 coloured figures and diagrams, by D. M'AIphine, quite new. — Walter HoUebon, Newark House, Langney Road, Eastbourne. Wanted, varieties of H. nemoralis and hortensis, and living slugs, in exchange for other land and freshwater shells. — F. G. Fenn, Isleworth, Middlesex. Vols. I.-IV. of Science-Gossip, bound, and choice micro- slides of parasites, diatoms, botanical, double-stained, &c., in exchange for other choice slides. — R. Suter, 5 Highweek Road, Tottenham. Twenty-four good microscopic slides in cloth-covered rack box ; will exchange for three fir.st issue Jubilee sixpences. — W. Mathie, 127 Buchanan Street, Glasgow. Wanted, to exchanae N. American or European plants, for Australian, Indian, African, or S. American ; also British and Continental plants for N. American. — A. E. Lomax, 56 Vaux- hall Koad, Liverpool. The "MvRiAroDA." — The undersigned is very desirous of communicating with some one who has made a study of this group, for the identification of an apparently undescribed form, which is marine (three to four fathoms). — ^J. Sinel, Cleveland Road, Jersey. Clean, washed, and picked foraminifera, from Atlantic mud, with locality and depth, in exchange for good objective. — A. H. Delap, Clonmel. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. "The Eulogy of Richard Jeffries," by Walter Besant (London : Chatto & Windus). — "Truth for its own Sake — The Story of Charles Darwin," by W. Mawer (London: Swan Sonnenschein).— "Land and Freshwater Shells," by J. W. Williams, J. W. Taylor, and W. Decissar Roebuck (London : Swan Sonnenschein). — "Catalogue of the Collection of New Zealand Birds, Manor House, Letcomb Regis, Wantage," bv Sir W. L. Buller (London: E. A. Petherick).—" Electric Bells and all about them," by S. R. Bottone (London : Whittaker & Co.).— " Book Chat."— "The Amateur Photo- grapher."—" The Garner." — "The Naturalist." — " The Botanical Gazette." — "Journal of the New York Microscopical Society." — "Belgravia." — "The Gentleman's Magazine." — "American Monthly Microscopical Journal." — "The Essex Naturalist." — "The Midland Naturalist." — "Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes." — " The American Naturalist." — " Journal of Microscopy and Nat. Science." — " Ottawa Naturalist." — " Scientific News."—" Wesley Naturalist," &c. &c. Communications received up to the ioth ult. from : A. U K. A. D.— C. P.— M. E. A.— A. H. L. S.— E. H. R.— R. N.— O.— M.— F. T. S— F. R. R.-A. W. H.-R. C— J. H.— R. P.— W. H. H.— M. B.— B.— A. H. W.— K. E. S.— G. W. B.— C H.— K. A. D.— W. B.— D. H. S.— J. A. W.— J. W. W.— A. H. S.— M. H. B.— G. E. E.— J. B. Y.— H. L. B.— W. W. F.— S. Mc. I.— G. F. G.— G. P. B.— W. E. W. (?).— R. M.— W. H. H.— G. F.— H. T. B.— E. T. H. -C. P.— H. W.— E. H. R.— J. E.— G. H.-H. A..F.— E. W. W. G. W. N.— E. B.— J. H. R.— J. C. E.— J. S.— M. W. J.— W. M. W.— S. D.— G. W.— J. T.— A. S.— T. J. P.— W. J. P. A. J. R. S.— A. G. T.-B. I. F.— A. V.-W. E. S.— W. H.— A. E. L.— G. W. K.— W. H.— R. S.— F. G. F.— J. H.— J. S.— W. M.— E. E. L.— J. G.— A. H. D.— J. H. C R.— E. H., &c. &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 25 COLOUR DEVELOPMENT IN LEAVES AND FLOWERS. By a. G. TANSLEY. AM very glad to see (Science- Gossip, October and November) that Mr. Bulman has argued in some detail in sup- port of his rather sweeping charges against the theory of colour develop- ment in flowers by means of insect selection. In my former paper (Science-Gossip, June, 1888), I briefly pointed out a line of defence of the points at- tacked by Mr. Bul- man ; I will now proceed to consider his " Reply." In comparing the colours of leaves and flowers, with a view to finding out the causes of their exist- ence, we are, I think,; at once struck by the fact that the bright colours of leaves, which appear in the autumn, are the attributes of a period of decay, depend in point of time on that period, and are therefore presumably most intimately connected with it in causation : this we know on good authority to be the case. When, on the other hand, we turn to the colours of entomophilous perianths, we see that they last during the period from expansion to fertilisa- tion ; that is to say, the period when the organs of the flower are preparing for the exercise of their function. The inference here also is clear ; either the colours are connected in causation with this functional activity, or, whatever the cause of their original appearance, they at present exist in virtue of the exercise of some function of their own. Now it is not h priori likely, from the great variety and complex distribution of these colours, that they can be accounted for as the mere result of the chemical processes connected with No. 290. — February 1889. pollen and ovule development ; but, however this may be, it has not, so far as I know, been done or attempted ; we are, therefore, driven to the other alternative, that they have a function of their own. The question now becomes, what is their function ? From observation of the habits of insects in visiting flowers, and from the knowledge of the benefits con- ferred by cross-fertilisation, which we further know these insects are constantly effecting, we are led to believe that the function of the colours of flowers is to attract insects. This leads at once, by the help of the theory of natural selection, to what we may call the general theory of colour development through insect selection. It is thus plain that the difference between the colouring pigments of leaves and flowers, which, Dr. Sorby tells us, are often chemically identical, is a difference in functional significance. Mr. Bulman is quite right in saying that "the fact, that the colour is in both cases due to the same chemical changes, does not make the suggestion (that colour in flowers is not developed by insect selection) less probable." I ought not to have said that Dr. Sorby's statement "fully meets" Mr. Bulman's objection, but rather that it is answered by this fact of the difference o functional significance, which was of course the as- sumption upon which my argument was based. Dr. Sorby's statement, however, in one sense, does meet Mr. Bulman's objection: — "We are just as much bound to account for the colours of these (leaves) as of the varied hues of the blossoms," Mr. Bulman says; and Dr. Sorby's statement does account for them — chemically — in the same way as for those of the flowers, but it is no part of his province to point out, what seems fairly obvious, the great difference between them in respect of functional significance. Here, in fact, hes the fallacy of Mr. Bulman's original argument, the assumption that, because the colours of leaver have not been developed by means of insect selection, therefore there is no need to sup- pose that those of flowers, which appear, as I have shown, under totally different conditions, and there- fore require, from a physiological point of view, a c 26 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. wholly different explanation, were originated by this means. Here I may conveniently deal with some remarks of Mr. Bulman's in his recent papers, bearing on this point. He says, for instance, that his conclusion that a brilliant red may be developed in a plant without the selective action of insects, "does not prove the selection theory impossible, but it does show that it is not necessary." Again, in referring to the cases of the appearance of red in the stigmas of Poterium and Corylus, he remarks that if these cases can be effected without insect agency, " it is simple dogmatism to say that petals might not be so also." Lastly, " It is doubt- less unwise to argue from the existence in flowers of certain colours which cannot have been influenced in their development by insect selection, that the colours of flowers in general cannot have been so developed ; it is, however, a legitimate and necessary conclusion, that they may have been developed without the selective action." Are not all these remarks per- meated by the same fallacy ? Of course the colours of petals may have been developed without insect selection ; the question is, is it likely, considering the circumstances under which they appear, and the varied nature of the colours themselves ? And does the fact of the appearance, a brilliant red in leaves, render the selection theory unnecessary ? Surely not, unless there is a reasonable theory to explain the de- velopment of the colours of flowers through chemical causes connected with some process going on in the plant, such as we have in the leaf, and adequate in each case to produce the particular distribution of colour in each species. Has this been done, or is it likely to be done ? The case of the stigmas of Corylus, quoted from Hermann Miiller, simply enforce this view. Miiller considers " that the red colour of the stigmas is solely an effect of chemical processes connected with the development of the female flowers to maturity." Has such an explanation been attempted of the colours of cntomophilous perianths ? To put tlie case in other words, in each female hazel plant the red colour in the stigmas is brought about by something which must happen in the economy of the plant, whereas in cntomophilous corollas we suppose the colour to have been brought about by the laws of heredity, themselves brought into play by the selective action of insects. It is therefore apparent that my objection that the red of the leaf is not fixed, — in the sense of hereditary in the species — can be urged [against this example, and that the red colour in the stigmas of Corylus and Poterium is brought about every year by chemical causes connected with vital processes, and is not "stereotyped and perpetuated," i.e. made permanent in the species from a functional reason. Mr. Bulman says that the connection in which I use the word "development" " seems to imply that the colouration of the flower was as completely effected as that of the leaf before insect selection came into play to stereotype and peq^etuate it." Now I did not mean to imply anything of the kind ; I used the word " development " here to mean simply the appearance of the colouring pigment, that is to say, chemical development. I am sorry that Mr. Bulman has misunderstood me, but I cannot say that I think the passage is ambiguous. " The development of the coloured pigments in both leaves and flowers is due to the same primary chemical set of causes." Is there anything in this sentence which "seems to imply that the colouration of the flower was as com- pletely effected as that of the leaf before insect selec- tion came into play to stereotype and perpetuate it ? " Surely it is clear that my statement has nothing whatever to do with intensity of colouration. Again, Mr. Bulman frequently alludes to a sup- posed "stereotyping" theory of mine; in one place, indeed, after instancing the development of colour in the monkshood, quoted from Mr. Grant Allen, as a case of the sort of process he (Mr. Bulman) under- stands when he speaks of the colour development through insect selection, he expresses the opinion, that this is "more in accordance with Darwinism " than my " theory." Now, in the first place, I have no independent theory to account for the colours of flowers ; and, secondly, the word " stereotype " is a word which I find I have unconsciously borrowed from Mr. Graiat Allen, and which I used in the same sense that he does, simply to mean the making permanent in a species a useful variation, by means of natural selection. In this case the process would doubtless result in intensification of the colour, but the point which the word in question is intended to emphasise, is its be- coming hereditary. My " stereotyping theory " then, at least as far as the " stereotyping " goes, is identical in all respects with M r. Grant Allen's, and therefore can hardly be less in accordance with "Darwinism ! " How Mr. Bulman, from my sentence quoted above, and aTiother remark that the colours of flowers were stereotyped and perpetuated in the species by insect selection, while those of leaves were not, came to the conclusion, that I considered that the colours were '■^ only stereotyped and perpetuated" by the insect selection, I cannot understand. Mr. Bulman next informs us that my statement, that ' * the contention of the upholders of the theory is that they (bees) have learned to consider blue or red as an index of high specialisation," and that this is the reason of their preferring these colours, deals a death-blow to the theory I am defending. He goes on to enforce this idea, by considering the time when flowers according to the theory had not become blue. " The bees' taste for blue being simply the result of experience, does not exist. So the few flowers with a chance shade of blue ... are not specially selected by the bees visiting the blooms for honey, and do not obtain any advantage : the chance variations towards blueness, not conferring any benefit, are not seized HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 27 upon by selection — they disappear." With regard to this statement, we should remember one or two things ; in the first place, the " bees " were not bees at all, the co-adaptations which now exist between them and the flowers they visit,and without which the colour in itself would be meaningless, were for the most part not yet evolved. It should be remembered that while these variations of colour were first appearing, the co- adaptations which we see in such beautiful perfection at the present day, were appearing as variations. In Hermann Miiller's words: "The first traces of adaptation to insects, could only be due to the influence of quite short-lipped insects with feebly developed colour-sense. The most primitive flowers are therefore for the most part (except, for instance, Salix) simple, widely open, regular, devoid of honey or with their honey unconcealed and easily accessible, and white or yellow in colour {e.g. most UmbellifercB and AhinecE, many Rammailacei2 and Rosacea). . . . Gradually from the miscellaneous lot of flower-visiting insects, all much alike in their tastes, there arose others more skilful and intelligent, with longer tongues and acuter colour-sense ; and they gradually caused the production of flowers with more varied colours, honey invisible to or beyond the reach of the less intelligent short-tongued guests, and various con- trivances for lodging, protecting, and pointing out the honey." We can thus see how the new colours would become correlated with increasing complexity of structure, and would at last come to be recognised by the developing bee as the outward marks of flowers suited to it in structure ; the eventual taste for blue arising from the selection of the varieties visited be- cause of their gradually increasing'specialisation, and the neglect of the more primitive yellow or wliite forms. Mr. Grant Allen goes so far as to say, that the appearance of the colours followed a regular law of progressive colouration — yellow, white, red, blue. — which would thus be correlated with increasing com- plexity ; in his own words : " Bees and butterflies are the most highly-adapted of all insects to honey- seeking and flower-feeding. They have themselves on their side undergone the largest amount of specialisa- tion for that particular function. And if the more specialised and modified flowers, which gradually fitted their forms and the position of their honey- glands to the forms of the bees or butterflies, showed a natural tendency to pass from yellow through pink and red to purple and blue, it would follow that the insects which were being evolved side by side with them, and which were aiding at the same time in their evolution, would grow to recognise these developed colours as the visible symbols of those flowers from which they could obtain the largest amount of honey with the least possible trouble. Thus it would finally result that the ordinary unspecialised flowers, which depended upon small insect riff-raff, would be mostly left yellow or white ; those which appealed to rather higher insects would become pink or red ; and those which laid themselves out for bees and butterflies, the aristocrats of the arthropodous world, would grow for the most part to be purple or blue" ("Colours of Flowers," pp. 23, 24). If then the theory is to stand at all, it must rest upon the supposition that bees grew to recognise " blue or red as an index of high specialisation," for we cannot assume the then not fully-evolved bee to have acquired his taste for blue (this of course^ must be distinguished from the power of discriminating the colour blue from other colours) from any other source. And even if we do not abso- lutely accept Mr. Grant Allen's ' ' Law of Progressive Colouration," there is good reason for believing with Hermann Miiller that red and blue appeared later than white and yellow, and would therefore be corre- lated with the more complex structures. Thus the statement under which, according to Mr. Bulman, " the whole theory collapses " is abso- lutely necessary for its support. I think, from what I have said above, it will hardly be necessary now to refute Mr. Bulman'sidea, that Mr. Grant Allen believes bees to be attracted by blue "simply as a colour"; his quotations merely amount to the statement, that every time Mr. Grant Allen speaks of the " azure-loving bee," he does not explain the origin of its love for azure, which could hardly be expected of him. The following passages from the " Colours of Flowers " are, however, ex- plicit enough: "The fact is, blue flowers are, as a rule, specialised for fertilisation by bees, a/id dees therefore prefer this colour'''' (p. 19). "Bees show a marked taste for blue, because blue is the colour of the juost advanced fl.oivers'" (p. 119). {To be contimied.) OUR SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. "\ T TANT of space prevents us from giving more V V than a general list of the chief articles in the "Transactions," &c., of the following societies. County of Middlesex Natural History and Science Society: "The Chemistry of London Clay," by W. Mattieu Williams; "Appearance in London oi Ephestia Kiihniella, and the Remedy provided by Nature," by Sidney J. Klein ; " Horns and Antlers," by Professor Flower; "Fossils of the Flint, or the Wonders Lying at Our Own Doors," by George Barraclough ; " On Some Methods of Collecting and Keeping Pond-life for the Microscope," by C. Rousselet. The City of London College Society: "The Use of Experiment in Biology," by Professor G. S. Boulger ; " The New Darwinism, or the Segregation of the Fit," by J. W. Gregory. Hackney Microscopical and Natural History Socuty: " The Migration of Internal Parasites," by W. Smart. Bristol Naturalists' Society: " Dolomitic C 2 28 HARD WICKK S SCIENCE- G OSS I P. Conglomerate of Bristol," by Joel Lean; "The Mendips, A Geological Reverie"; "The Stones of Stanton Drew, Their Source and Origin," and " Elimination and Selection," by Professor C. Lloyd Morgan ; " Remarks About Seals, and their So-called ' Ballast- bag,' " by A.J. Harrison; "Researches on Evaporation and Dissociation," by Professor William Ramsay, and Professor Sydney Young ; " The Crossmg of Ferns," by Colonel Arthur M. Jones ; "The Illumination of the Eclipsed Moon," by G. F, Burder. Chichester and West Sussex Natural His- tory and Microscopical Society : ' ' Notes from a Berar Camp," by Rev. C. D. Ash; " The Use of Natural History Collections," by A. Lloyd ; "Nummulites," by Dr. Panton ; "The Antennae of Lepidoptera," by J. Anderson, jun. ; " Phyto-Geography of the South Coast," by Rev. F, H. Arnold; " A Chapter from the History of Oils," by Rev. J. Eraser. Dum- friesshire and Galloway Natural History and Anti- (jtiarian Society : "Atmospheric and other Influences on the Migration of Fishes," by J. J. Armistead ; " The Graptolites of the Moffat District," by James Dairon. Hertfordshire Nattiral History Society and Field Club : " The means of Protection possessed by Plants," by F. Maule Campbell ; " On Walckenaera interjecta, a New Spider from Hoddesdon," by Rev. C. P. Cambridge ; " A Record of Water-level in a Deep Chalk Well at Barley, Herts," by H. George Fordham : " Some Methods of Moth-collecting," by R. M. Bowyer.- Leeds Geological Association : "Oceanic Deposits," by Thomas Tate; "The Occurrence of Quartzite and other Boulders in the Lower Coal Measures at Wortley, near Leeds," by C. Brownridge. Liverpool Geological Society : ' ' Local Historical, Post-glacial and Pre-glacial Geology," by G. H. Morton ; " A Theory to Account for the Airless and Waterless Condition of the Moon," by Rev. F. F. Grensted ; "Geological and Physical Notes on the above," by T. Mellard Reade ; " Stan- low, Nice, and Frodesham Marshes," by G. H. Morton : " Notes on Glacial Deposits and Markings in the South of the Isle of Man," by W. Hewitt ; "Notes on the Geology of St. David's, Pembroke- shire," and " Notes on a Large Boulder found in Driving a Sewer Heading in Oxford Road, Man- chester," by T. Mellard Reade ; " Geological Notes on the Preston Dock Works and Nibble Develop- ment Scheme," with illustration and plan, by E. Dickson ; " Examination of Quartzite from Mills Hill, Pontesbury," by P. Holland and E. Dickson ; " On the Colouring Matter of the Mineral 'Blue John,'" by A. Norman Tate; "Some Irregularly Striated Joints in the Keuper Sandstone of Lingdal (Quarry," with plans, by H. C. Beasley. Penzance Natural LListory and Antiquarian Society: "The Mosses of East Cornwall," by R. V. Tellam ; " Notes on the Echinodermata of Mounts Bay," by G. F. Tregelles ; "Additions to the recorded Fauna and Flora of West Cornwall." HORNS AND ANTLERS. \ LECTURE recently delivered by Professor Flower, Director of the British Museum, to the County of Middlesex Natural History and Science Society, on the above deeply interesting subject, is given in full in the last issue of the "Transactions." We extract the following paragraphs (illustrated by the original block used in Professor Flower's lecture), and for the loan of which we are indebted to the Hon. Sees. : — It is among the ruminating section of the even-toed or Artiodactyle ungulates that frontal appendages are most universally developed. In some of these, how- ever, as thejTragulida?, or Chevrotains, and Camelida?, camels and llamas, they are absent. In the great group of Bovidse, consisting of oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, they are present in the form of true horns. These are permanent, conical, usually curved, bony processes from the frontal bone, into which air- cells from the frontal sinuses commonly extend, called the "horn-cores," ensheathed in a case of true horn, an epidermic development of fibrous structure, which grows continuously, but slowly, from the base, and wears away at the apex ; but is not shed entire. Its structure is very much the same as that of a nail, hoof, or claw. When the horn is removed from the core, the basal part is seen to be hollow, the terminal portion beyond the core alone being solid. This part may be cut without giving rise to more sensation than cutting nails or hair. The surface of the core itself is soft, vascular, and sensitive. As with most similar appendages, horns are not present at birth, but begin to grow soon after. The males of all existing Bovidae possess them, and they are also present, though usually not so fully developed, in the females of all except certain genera of antelopes. In one species, the Indian four-horned antelope {Tetra- ceros quadricornis), there are two pairs ; in all others only one pair. They vary immensely in size, form, and curvature, sometimes being perfectly straight, sometimes spirally twisted, sometimes coiled almost in one plane, as in the familiar ram's horn {Cornu ammonis). Sometimes the surface is smooth, and sometimes covered with annular ridges, or a series or projections or knobs on one side only, but they are never branched. A single species, the North American prong-buck (Antilocapra Americana), differs from all the true Bovidae, in possessing horns composed of fibrous epidermic material ensheathing a permanent bony core, but which is bifurcated at the end, and is regularly and periodically cast off and replaced by a new horn growing from the surface of the core beneath the old one. In the family 1 Cervidce, or deer, the frontal appendages take the form of "antlers," which must be carefully distinguished from the horns of the bovine ruminants. These are the outgrowths of true HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. 29 bone, covered during their growth with vascular, I insensible, in which state it is well adapted for a sensitive integument coated with short hair, techni- I fighting weapon. After a time, by a process of K^l Fig. 18. — Figures illustrating the growth of Antlers. cally called " the velvet." When the growth of the antler is complete, the supply of blood to it ceases, the skin dies and peels off, leaving the bone bare and absorption near the base, it becomes loosened from the skull and is shed. A more or less elongated portion, called the " pedicle," always remains on the 30 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. skull, from the summit of which a new antler is developed. In most existing deer this process is repeated with great regularity at the same period of the year. Even the great horns of the wapiti, and, judging by all analogy, those of the Irish elk (Mega- ceros), the pair of which weigh seventy pounds, more than all the bones of the skeleton put together, are produced in the course of three or four months. The antler may be small, simple, straight, sub- cylindrical, tapering, and pointed, as in certain South American deer (pudu and brocket) ; but more often it sends off one or more branches, called " tynes " or ' ' snags. " In this case, the main stem is termed the "beam." Commonly, all the branches of the antler are cylindrical, and gradually tapering. Sometimes, as in the fallow deer and the_extinct megaceros, they are more or less expanded or flattened, the antler being then said to be "palmated." In young animals the antlers are always small and simple, and in those species in which they are branched or pal- mated, their complete development is only gradually acquired in several successive annual growths. This process is exceedingly well illustrated by a series of specimens exhibited in the Natural History Museum (to which they were presented by W. H, St. Quintin, Esq.) of the antlers of the same stag {Cervus elaphus) grown and shed in six successive years (see Fig. i8). The animal was born in June, 1880, and was kept under careful observation in a park in Yorkshire. In the year of its birth it had no antlers, but in the summer of 1881 those represented in No. I were grown, and shed in the following spring, 1S82, when the animal was nearly two years old; No. 2 were grown in 1882, and shed in April, 1883, and so on with the others, until in August, 1886, the animal was killed with its newly-grown sixth pair of antlers. This series shows not only that the antlers on the two sides are not always symmetrical, but also that the tynes on the same side do not necessarily resemble those of the preceding or succeeding years. No. 3 of the right side, for example, want the second or bez-tyne, and the same tyne is only indicated by a slight projection in No. 2 on the left side. No. 5 has three tynes on the crown or top of the beam on the right side, and but two on the left ; in No. 6 these numbers are reversed. An interesting parallel has been shown here, as in so many other cases, between the development of the race and that of the individual. The earliest known forms of deer, those of the Lower Miocene, had no antlers, as in the young of existing species. The deer of the Middle Miocene had simple antlers, with not more than two branches, as in many existing deer of the second year. Species occur in the Upper Miocene with three branches to the antlers ; but it was not till the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene times that deer were met with having antlers developed with that luxuriance of growth and beauty of form characteristic of some of the existing species in a perfectly adult state. Among recent Cervidse antlers are wanting in the musk-deer [Moschus moschiferus) and the Chinese water-deer {Hydropotes iuennis), but their absence in both these forms is compensated by large canine tusks in the male animal. In the reindeer (Ta7-attdus rangifer) alone the female carries antlers as well as the male ; in all other deer they are present in the male only. A CHAPTER ON PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. THE art of taking pictures of objects under the microscope by means of photography has been generally regarded as beyond the scope of the ordinary microscopist. In the first place the cost of the apparatus is considerable; the ordinary "photo- micrographic camera," being set down in the opti- cian's list at prices varying from £"] to ^10, and this is exclusive of plates, chemicals, and all those other articles which form the equipment of an ordinary photographer. In the second place, comparatively few men have that competent knowledge of both photography and microscopy which the union of the two sciences demands. But while few have this two-fold knowledge them- selves, there cannot be many microscopists who have not a friend who photographs, and these two may co-operate, and without purchasing any special apparatus obtain very fair results. The writer of this paper is a microscopist of some experience, but has little knowledge of photography ; but working with two photographers who are quite unskilled in microscopy, the joint union has produced some very respectable photo-micrographs. We propose then to naiTate the process by which the writer, together with two photographic friends — Mr. P. L. Foster, and] Mr. R. H. Tahourdin— obtained the photographs enclosed. Our apparatus was of the simplest — A "Star" microscope by Messrs. Beck (with rack and pinion coarse adjustment), and an ordinary camera by the Stereoscopic Company. (We may here remark, that the cheapest form of camera would do equally well, as no use is made of the lens.) The light used was that of a small paraffin microscope lamp, 'attached, as usual, to a rod on which it could slide up and down. The actual process is as follows : — Remove the lens from the camera, place the microscope in a horizontal position, and place the eye-piece end of the microscope about half an inch inside the hole of the camera. (In some books it is recommended to remove the eye-piece, but we found that we got a better image when it was left in.) Cut out a circle in a sheet of black cardboard so that the tube of the microscope fits tightly into it, and let HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 3t the sheet be of such a size as to more than cover the lens-hole of the camera. Now slide this along the tube until it reaches the eye-piece ; it will then make the camera perfectly light-tight. As an extra pre- caution, wrap a space focussing cloth round the whole. Remove the ground glass of the camera and make sure (i) That no light enters the camera except through the eye-hole ; (2) That the eye-hole is exactly in the centre of the lens aperture ; then replace the ground glass screen. Screw the substage condenser into the fitting of the microscope, and place lamp behind it, inter- posing a bull's-eye condenser between the lamp-flame and the substage condenser. Focus these condensers and move the lamp, until the object to be photo- graphed is as brilliantly illuminated as possible. An inch objective is perhaps the best for general use. Focus the object very carefully on the ground glass screen, altering the focus by means of the microscope coarse and fine adjustments, and not by moving the camera. Examine the image formed under a magnifying lens, and make sure it is as perfect as possible. Then put in the dark slide. With the inch power the exposure is best made by capping the object glass in the same way as is done with the ordinary lens ; in the employment of higher powers exposure must be made by means of the shutter. For the duration of the exposure no cer- tain rule can be given ; much depends on the luminosity of the flame, on the thickness and colour of the object ; but under the inch power one to two minutes is about right. A photometer will be of great service to determine the exact exposure. The negative is then developed and the print obtained in the ordinary way ; the pyrogallic acid developer is perhaps preferable for this work to the ferrous oxalate, since it permits greater laxity in the matter of over or under exposure. Enclosed I send two half-plate photographs taken in the manner described above ; the one of the head of a female gnat, and the second of a double stained- section of the plane wood ; both of my own mounting. I shall be most happy to give any further infor- mation on the subject to any who care to pursue this fascinating union of the camera and microscope. A. C. Deane. Wellitigton College, Wokingham. A ASTRONOMY. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. T the last meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, it was stated that the director of the Lick Observatory had presented to the Society a photograph of the moon more than two feet in diameter, in which the lunar details are very sharply defined. The image of the moon, of which this photograph is an enlargement, was taken with the great Lick telescope. A paper by Mr. J. Roberts was read on photo- graphs he has taken of the great nebulre in Andro- meda, which he considers afford striking evidence of the truth of Laplace's nebulae hypothesis. Mr. Roberts considers that the small nebulae H 44 and H 55 have both been thrown off by the great nebulae, and may be looked on as planetary nebulae in course of condensation. Mr. Frank McLean read a paper on some photographs of the red end of the solar spectrum from the D to the A line, about one half of the visible spectrum. The photograph is in seven sections, each about fifteen inches long. They were taken with a refractionfgrating having 17,300 lines in the inch, and are the second order of the spectra. Messrs. Alvan Clark have undertaken to construct a telescope for the United States Government with an object-glass forty-two inches in diameter. This telescope is to be erected in Southern California, and is expected to be completed in about five years. Accounts from San Francisco of the total solar eclipse of January ist, state that it was successfully observed at Brass Valley and many other stations. It would require far more space than is at my disposal to give a brief account of the various observations,, but I may say that Professor Toll took a number of fine photographs of the eclipsed sun, showing the corona extending from ten to twelve degrees. Twenty-five negatives were taken at Winnipeg to • measure the brightness of the corona and its sur- roundings. At the Lick Observatory successful observations were made, and several photographs were taken. The thermometer fell at different places from seven , to ten degrees during totality. There will be no occultation of interest in February. At the beginning of February Ursa Major, Lynx, Cancer, and part of Hydra will be on the meridian about midnight. Mercury will set on the ist at 6.32 p.m., on the^ 15th at 5.13 P.M. Venus will be an evening star, setting on the 1st at 9.10 P.M. and on the 28th at 10.8 p.m. Mars will be an evening star, setting on the ist at 8.4 P.M. and on the 28th at 8. 1 7 p.m. Jupiter will rise on the 1st about 5.13 A.M. and! on the 28th at 3.48 a.m. Saturn will rise on the ist at 4.58 p.m., and on the 3rd he will rise about sunset ; on the 12th he will set about sunrise. Earthworms. — Is there more than one British species ? The large ones seem very different from the darker coloured and more cylindrical small wormSj I have seen the latter performing the functions of the adult. They are said to be oviparous, how are the eggs to be found and recognised ?— W. A. Gain. 32 HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. THE WOOD ANTS [FORMICA RUFA). By J. Bowman. I REMEMBER well, how, that years ago, when I was merely a boy, one of the most pleasant walks in the neighbourhood of my native town, Morpeth, was always a source of wonder to me, ov/ing to its being frequented by thousands of wood ants, many of whom were every day crushed to death by the feet of passers-by, the pedestrian being in most cases uncon- scious of the fact that his track, like the track of the car of Juggernaut, was made prominent by the dead bodies of his victims, though, as a matter of fact, he was in no wise to blame ; it being a matter of extreme difficulty, nay, of absolute impossibility to put one's feet down without grinding the life out of some poor unwary ant. They were present in their thousands, and amongst them there were no lazy, basking, idlers, but each and every one seemed to emulate cardboard box, and duly arrived at his destination, somewhere in the Bothal Woods. There was the ants' nest in perfect condition literally swarming with its inhabitants. He carefully picked his way towards the nest, and when within a few feet of it he chanced to look down at his feet, he was horrified to see that his boots and the bottom part of his trousers were completely covered with ants. Having an unpleasant remembrance of being at one time the victim of an ant's bite, and that ant being only one of the lesser species, he quickly beat a retreat, and was soon engaged in getting rid of the would-be explorers. He was not to be entirely balked by such puny antagonists, and after carefully tying his trousers at the bottoms, so as to preclude the possibility of any adventurous ant getting up the inside, he once more advanced towards the nest, and this time succeeded in getting near enough to fill his box full of ants and the nest material together. He immediately con- Fig. 19.— Two members of the F. ru/a family engaged in pulling against each other for the possession of a twig. liis neighbours, in their business-like appearance as they hurried to and fro in endless trains. My ambition was, as I became acquainted with them, and their huge heaped-up nests, to secure one of these latter with its occupants, and to study more closely the habits of these busy little creatures. This seemed to me to be a rather difficult under- taking, and in truth I have not personally attempted it, as yet. About two years ago, however, it occurred to my mind that I had not yet attained the wish of my boy- hood as a naturalist — a wood ants' nest ; and accord- ingly I wrote to a Mr. Walton, a friend of mine at that time living in Morpeth, requesting him, if possible, to secure me one and to send it on to me by parcels post. This my friend essayed to do, and his experience of hunting ants' nest, as he afterwards related it to me, was a most amusing one. He set off early one morning, armed with a stout veyed his prize down to the path from which the nest was a few yards distant ; but, alas ! on reaching it, he found that in his hurry he had neglected to fasten the box-lid securely, and the ants had swarmed out in all directions. With the indomitable perse- verance of a true Briton, he once more returned to the charge, and this time he succeeded in securing and retaining a goodly number of ants, and also of nest material, which he fastened up securely, and, as quickly as possible, consigned to the care of the post- office officials, and in due course I received the precious parcel. One of the instructions which I most carefully impressed upon his mind, he unfortunately neglected to fulfil ; that was, to be sure and enclose as many of the pup£E as he could find, and thus my nest was without one of its most essential characters. After receiving the box and its contents, the first difficulty which I experienced was in transferring the HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. II ants from the box to a larvae-breeding cage, where- by I could gain a better insight to their movements. This difficulty I surmounted by placing the box con- taining the ants on a stand situated in the centre of a tin full of water, and then transferring its contents to the larvre-cage by means of a spoon. Of course, any of the ants chancing to drop from the spoon fell into the water and were easily captured. As a natural sequence of the rude behaviour to which they bad been subjected, the nest and its occupants were in a state of considerable confusion, and it was difficult to believe that such apparently puny creatures could create cosmos out of the state of chaos presented to my view. The natural instinct of the insect, soon, however, asserted itself, and a few minutes after the time of their transfer the ants v/ere all busily engaged in dragging about the pieces of twigs and leaves of which their nest is principally composed. It was some time before they pitched upon the exact situation for their new abode, and, so far as I could judge, they seemed to over-estimate the quantity of their materials, for many of them crept up the sides of the cage and attached pieces of twig, far above the kvel to which the top of their nest could attain. These pieces they seemed to fix to the side by means of a gummy secretion, and they never afterwards attempted to remove them. The nest soon began to assume its natural form as the busy builders applied their combined strength to the task, and everything in the shape of food dropped into the cage speedily disappeared into the cavity which formed the entrance to the chambers of the nest. On one occasion I dropped into the cage a piece of bread of such large dimensions that, after repeated effiDrts, the ants found it was impossible to remove it, and I felt certain that they would have to give up their efforts, and was just about to remove it from the cage when I was called away. I did not see the nest again till next day, and when I did so, I found that they had entirely covered up the bread with material from the nest. In order to do this they must certainly have worked pretty nearly all the night, as the time when I had last seen them, and when the bread was at no part covered, was nine o'clock at night and was then almost dark. I saw thevn again immediately after rising, and then the bread was entirely covered. Now to show the prodigiousness of their work, I took the following proportions : — Length of the wood-ant (Z'. ntfa) three-eighths of an inch, measurement of bread was three inches by two inches, whilst the average length of the twigs used in covering i^ inches, and some even as long again. Many of the twigs would be conveyed to their position by more than one ant, but this would be seldom, and even in most cases where this was done it would not tend to lessen the labour, for I have often noticed, that if at any time the wood ant showed any lack of reasoning power it was when two or more of them were endeavouring to drag the same object to their nest, as almost invariably in those cases, they each endeavoured to pull in opposite directions, and thus all progress was retarded. Artificial light seemed to have attractions for them, much in the same way as it has attractions for night- flying moths, and whenever I approached them with a lighted candle or taper, or indeed whenever the gas was lighted far above them, they would gather in great numbers on the glass window of the cage, and remain there until the light was put out. I have noticed too that their sense of hearing was very acute, and on the occasion of any uncommon noise in my room, they would, to an ant, rise on their two hind legs in a menacing attitude, as though awaiting the approach of an enemy. I was not, unfortunately, permitted to keep my ants for any great length of time, for soon after getting them I was obliged to have my holidays out of town, and when I returned my ants were gone, and how much I mourned their loss no one can tell. I have not to this day learned their true fate, though I have long suspected that some of my nervously constituted friends were the cause of their disappearance, as I had heard one or two of them express their fears, in an aside, that in case of their escape from the cage, the ants would prove decidedly unpleasant neighbours. I did not intend to allow this comparative failure to deter me from further observation in the direction of Heterogyna, and accordingly the following summer when staying in Morpeth I bent my steps in the direction of the Bothal Woods, where I knew I should find F. ricfa in abundance. The walk leading through these woods will class with any for beauty of scenery, a freshly delightful picture being disclosed to view every few yards of the journey ; pictures of nature which hold spell-bound even the veterans of the paint-brush and palette. On the occasion of my visit in search of F. rufa, as I was wandering along by the side of the river, my curiosity was aroused by seeing an unusual commotion in the water, and on creeping nearer to ascertain what it was, I was delighted to see that an otter was fishing in the waters, and that its frequent dives after fish had caused the commotion which had placed my inquisi- tive senses on the qui vive. I stood silent for a few moments, and presently its head appeared above water; the head disappeared, and, immediately following, part of its back came to view, that too, disappeared beneath the water, and I knew that it had gone in search of some luckless trout. I was right ; in a few moments it was back to the surface again grasping a large trout in its jaws. It swam swiftly to shore and proceeded to devour its captive, and I left it to enj,oy its rich feast in peace. Ihis, however is a digression for which I must apologise, and having done so I hasten back to my gossip about my favourite Formica. 34 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. I was first made aware of the fact that I was approaching a colony, by seeing a group of ants gathered round the dead body of one of their fellows. The living ants, by the action of their antennae, seemed to be holding a consultation over their dead comrade, and after due consultation, the corpse was seized by one of them and carried off to the nest. As I got nearer, I found that the approaches to the ant-hill are like the approaches to a great city, well- beaten tracks on which the population were travelling to and from the nest in endless trains. Even before I had optical revelation as to the exact whereabouts of the hillock, I was quite certain that I was on the right road, a beaten track about three inches wide which was densely crowded with ants, some homeward bound, while others were making their way outwards evidently in search of provender. I noticed too that up and down the tree trunks in close proximity to the nest, trains of ants were moving, always confining themselves to a space about three inches across, until they got amongst the branches, and then they scattered here and there in search of flies or insects of any description : and that their captures were plentiful, was plainly seen by the great number of victims which were being dragged down the trunk. The day previous to my visit having been a very wet one, the upper part of the nest appeared quite sodden, and being curious to find how far into the nest the rain had penetrated, I turned over the material with my stick, and found that although the rain had been coming down for something like ten hours at a stretch it had not penetrated more than two inches, and in the chambers below that depth the pupje, or ant-eggs as they are sometimes called, were snugly ensconced, *'dry as a match-stick," as they say here in the north. The wood ants appear to be unerring weather prophets, for long before the appearance of rain they know of its coming, and carry their embryo children down out of harm's way. In fine, warm weather, the pupre will be found close to the surface ; and if one should lay them bare by removing the nest material, the first care of the adult ants is to seize them and carry them away into safety. The sense of hearing in F. rufa was here again proved to me, for on clapping my hands loudly numbers of them swarmed from the nest, and creeping up the long grass stood in a defiant position as if expecting the approach of an enemy ; although possibly they might feel as much scared as the inhabitants of a volcanic country, after the first shock of an earth- quake. Having given a brief and, perhaps, a weak descrip- tion of a portion of the outside life of my favourites, I shall here leave my readers, promising to trouble them again, by the permission of our worthy Editor, with a few observations on the ants' mode of building, and their life inside their home. Havelock House,- Sunderland. GOSSIP ON CURRENT TOPICS. By W. Mattieu Williams, F.R.A.S., F.C.S. VANDAL NATURALISTS.- Collectors may be useful contributors to science, or they may be quite the contrary. In some cases the collecting mania is merely a modification of the morbid instinct of the miser, the greed of possessing and hoarding. When thus manifested and applied to botanical or zoological^rarities, serious mischief is perpetrated. The true scientific botanist who comes upon the habitat of a rare plant and desires a specimen, takes the utmost pains to obtain such specimen in such a manner that shall do the smallest possible amount of mischief as regards the mainten- ance and future propagation of the plant in its own. chosen abode. The collecting miser grabs every stalk and root he can reach, exulting in the destructioii which will increase the rarity of his own specimens. I was present at an annual conversazione of a North Country Field Club, where a very large collection of birds' eggs were exhibited by a collector who ardently expected much admiration ; but the chairman, a true naturalist, treated both collection and collector with stern justice by publicly and severely reprimanding the self-convicted Vandal, who] was known in the neighbourhood as a ruthless nest-robber and extermin- ator of rare birds. A genuine naturalist requiring a specimen for scientific purposes would take but one egg from the nest, and do this in such a manner as not to scare the parent birds, nor prevent them from hatching and rearing the rest. These remarks are suggested by a report of Professor Hillhouse on behalf of the Conference of Correspond- ing Societies to the British Association, section D. Referring to the disappearance of Native plants from their local habitats in Scotland, he states Ihe melan- choly fact, that eighty-five flowers are "practically extinct," and especially notes that the white water- lily (Ayinp/icca alba) has been almost exterminated from the lochs about Dumfries ; and that the name of the delinquent who committed the ravages has been brought before the local Natural History Society. By means of an appeal from the Society to the owners, the exterminator has been warned off in time. Other cases of extermination are mentioned, in- including those caused by the abuse of exchanging clubs, which offer strong temptations to ruthless botanical vandalism. True and Spurious Technical Education. — In Mr. R. Bannister's first Cantor Lecture on our milk, butter, and cheese supply, recently delivered before the Society of Arts, the following facts are stated : Denmark, which twenty years ago exported bad butter of ^420,000 annual value, last year ex- ported excellent butter of the value of ;[{^2,6oo,ooo which represents a sixfold increase. The improve- HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIF, 35 ment in quality (and consequent demand for quantity) has been mainly wrought by a judicious expenditure of a sum not exceeding ;^ii,ooo a year in providing the country with dairy schools, where the pupils are trained in the theory and practice of dairy work, and are taught to make butter and cheese of the best quality during all seasons of the year. These facts are eloquent appeals for technical education, properly so called, which is something very different from that which is advocated by certain ■"professors and college men," who having added modern science to their classical attainments are con- descendingly willing, in obedience to the law of demand and supply, to transfer a certain portion of their university culture to the neglected artizan. Such repetition of college text-book science is very ■different from the technical education that has been supplied with such admirable results to the dairy farmers of Denmark, and equally different from that which is demanded by our artizans. It is different from the technical education that is so well supplied in this country to another and very important class — our medical students. In medical schools, the technical professors are practical physicians and practical surgeons. What would become of a medical school in which these professors were mere bachelors or masters of arts, or bachelors or masters of science, or wranglers, or fellows, however distinguished, of their colleges, but without any practical experience in the actual treat- onent of the sick and injured. In such schools there are, of course, the " preliminary scientific " classes, and the preliminary scientific examinations in chemistry, botany, natural history &c., but this is not the technical education of the student, and does not bear that name. The technical education, pro- perly so called, follows this. A corresponding distinction is demanded in the education of artizans and men of commerce. Let the "professors and college men" do their part of the work, but let us have no pedantic assumption of its completeness or superiority. It is merely subor- dinate and comparatively easy. All they are capable of teaching is within reach of all ; the difficulty of technical education comes after their work is done. It is the difficulty of finding men with practical technical knowledge, who can teach what they know on a scientific basis. Good work is being done in the less pretentious classes of the Polytechnic and other similar institutions, where theory and practice are firmly welded together ; but, on the other side, we have some sad examples of what I am justified in designating as learned charlatanism, where mere college cram is offered for what it is not, and men devoid of technical knowledge are pretending to be technical teachers. Besides the Danish dairy schools, I may refer to the horological universities of Switzerland, where highly skilled practical and scientific watchmakers are the leading professors, aided in subordinate capacity by ordinary "college men," who do the preliminary or introductory teaching. I emphati- cally repeat the word subordinate, knowing from long practical experience as a scientific teacher of artizans that, unless their preliminary scientific teaching is strictly subordinated to practical demands, it becomes worse than useless, it only disgusts those it pretends to teach, and drives them to the conclusion that pure science is dreamy, useless theorizing, that practical men should treat with contempt. Electrical Superstitions. — The melancholy collapse of " The New York Electric Sugar Refining Company" is such a glaring 7'eductio ad absurdiim of the wild expectations of electric visionaries that it may do some good as a warning. "Shut your eyes and open your purses " was the cool demand of the promoters of this model company, and dupes were actually found so eager to do so that the lOO-dollar shares were run up to 300, mostly in this country. The friend who was to have made the fortunes of these true believers refused to disclose his method, beyond telling them that he poured raw sugar into the top of his machine and electrified it somehow, when hocus pocus, presto, prestissimo ! it ran out from the bottom fully refined. He told them that the machine was made and working ; he supplied eye-witnesses who had seen it working ; he had fully succeeded, was actually at work ; all he required was that outside — especially this side — investors should share the enormous profit, and thereby re- lieve him of the burden of excessive riches. The New York "Evening Sun" tells us that "just how many were interested in the scheme does not appear. They realized about 250,000 dollars." When "Mrs. Friend and all who had been connected with the company had disappeared," leaving word that they had "gone West," it was discovered that the "raw sugar" put into the top of the machine was "refined sugar chiefly in cubes," and that there was no electrical apparatus whatever. I need not enter upon any further commercial particulars, as the above are quoted from a detailed account published in the "Times" of Jan. 5th, and will be well known before this is published, but I will improve the occasion by again pointing out the monstrous folly that so widely prevails, of regarding electricity as something more wonder-working, more mysterious than the other familiar energies of Nature, such as light, heat, or gravitation. It is far less potent than heat or light, far less mysterious and far less wonderful than gravitation. The mystery of gravitation is absolute. No human being can form any approach to a thinkable idea of the nature of the link that binds our earth to the solar orb through a distance of nearly one hundred millions of miles, and which holds together the other and vastly greater orbs at distances a million and 36 BA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, more times greater. We feel it operating perpetually on our own bodies, and yet can form no approxima- tion to a rational idea of its mode of operation. Theories of an electric fluid or fluids, and of electric vibrations and undulations, have been attempted, and some are satisfied therewith ; but the mystery of gravitation defies even the imaginative inventors of the universal all-pervading luminiferous "jelly." The Low Antarctic Barometer. — In a recent number of "Nature," Mr. Murphy asks, "Why in all the disquisitions on fluid equilibrium are the constant low barometric pressures in the Antarctic regions south of 60° neglected ?" and he proceeds to explain them by the action of atmospheric currents. It certainly is a very curious fact that, as a ship approaches the great icy Antarctic continent, the barometer behaves precisely as though it were sailing up hill by a very gradual incline, its mean height diminishing as the ship comes nearer and nearer to the precipice wall of ice which, so far as we know, presents all around an impenetrable barrier to the mountain mass which surrounds and possibly caps the southern pole of the earth. I believe that the ship actually does sail up hill, and that for a very simple physical reason. As everybody knows, gravitation acts with a force vary- ing inversely with the square of the distance between the mutually acting bodies. Such a mass of lofty mountain land and ice as that around the south pole must pull at the ocean outside and be pulled thereby, but the mountains cannot move towards the waters of the ocean, while they, like Mahomet, are free to go to the mountain. If they do so, the order of their going will demonstrably be such that their surface will form an inclined plane sloping upwards towards the great protuberance. I am aware that certain mathematicians have esti- mated the amount of displacement of the centre of gravity of the earth due to such protuberant masses of land, and have assumed that the only result as regards ocean-level must be, that the ocean will arrange itself around this altered centre. This, although correct as regards the mean distribution of the ocean, is fallacious as applied locally, as in reference to the present question ; it is fallacious because it only measures the force of gravitation of the given mass of land, at its mean distance from the mass of the ocean generally, i.e. from the centre of gravity of the whole ocean ; but the oceanic matter immediately surrounding the Antarctic continent is at a shorter distance from this gravitating mass than is the general mass of the ocean, and as we are dealing with a mobile fluid, the scholastic formulae concerning the movement of the whole mass ^ beautiful forms. The figures which illustrate this paper will convey a far better notion of the varied forms of these beautiful organisms than any written description would do. NOTES ON NEW BOOKS. T^OSSILS OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS ± Stratigraphically and Zoologically Arranged, by Robert Etheridge, F.R.S., &c. (Oxford : The Clarendon Press). Many years ago, the late Professor Morris brought out a "Catalogue of British Fossils," which proved of great service to geologists. But the present work is based on a much more extensive scale. The volume before us deals only with the fossils of the Palxozoic formations. Nevertheless, it runs to 468 pp. quarto of closely-printed matter. It is indeed a gigantic labour, and one which no other man than Mr, Etheridge would have found either the knowledge or the patience to have given to it. In his long and useful position as Palaeontologist to the Geological Survey, he doubtless had opportunities for dealing with a work of the present description possessed by no other man. Some idea of the labour involved may, be gathered from the fact, that it has been in hand the last twenty-four years. 1,588 genera, and 6,200 species of fossils are described, ranging from the Cambrian to the Permian forma- 40 HARDWI CKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIF. tion, and references are made to all the works in which they have been figured. The work is beauti- fully printed, as all the Clarendon Press works are ; and it is a high credit to the delegates of the Oxford University Press that their liberality has enabled a valuable work like the present to be given to the scientific world. The Eulogy of Richard Jefferies, by Walter Besant {London: Chatto&Windus). This excellently-printed and handsomely-got-up book is as idyllic and dramatic as any of the world-famed novels of which Mr. Besant is the author. Richard Jefferies was unknown to fame a few years ago. Then suddenly it was evident a new star had arisen above the horizon. Articles appeared, and even books, such as " Wild Life in a Southern County," which displayed natural history knowledge of large range, observation almost photographic in its accuracy, a sympathetic love for the objects he described, not even excelled by Gilbert White, and a power of description more than equal to that of Thoreau or of John Burrowes, the famous author of "Wake Robin," &c. Indeed, Richard Jefferies' books have added a new and additionally rich element to our already surpassingly rich English literature. Poor Richard Jefferies' life was one both of suffering and poverty ; it was only wealthy in its deep and reverential love of nature. He attempted novel writing, failed in his plots and characters, although he succeeded in their realistic natural settings. It is as a natural-history writer and observer he will be longest and best known. Besant's life of him is a most charming volume ; for although Besant never knew Jefferies personally, he had the keenest interest in and sympathy for his writings. The Building of the British Isles, by A. J. Jukes- Browne (London : George Bell & Sons). It is now a fact well known to all geologists that continents, and even islands like our own, have had a geographical evolution. You can begin with the oldest, and gradually proceed to the newest formations. Mr. Jukes-Browne has already distinguished himself in geological literature by his well-known books on " Physical Geology," and " Historical Geology ; " and now he meets the wants of students in another direction, in the admirable volume before us, wherein he deals with the physical conditions under which our islands were formed. This volume is, in short, a continuous series of geographical restorations, commencing with the Cambrian period, and ex- tending to the present. These restorations are assisted by fifteen plates, or maps, representing the areas supposed to have been covered by sea during each geological period. The book is well written, and will sustain Mr. Jukes-Browne's reputation as a geological literary authority. Oti the Senses, Instincts, and Intelligences of Animals, by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. (London: Kegan Paul & Co.). This is the sixty-fifth volume of the now famous " International Scientific Series." It deals with one of the most fascinating departments of modern physiological and psychological research and observation. The hard and fast lines between the two have recently been toned down into a kind of shadowy borderland. It hardly need be said that in the present work Sir John Lubbock dwells chiefly on his beloved insects ; but he by no means confines himself to the Invertebrata. His book is a perfect cyclopsedia for the general and even scientific reader, of all that is known on the subject up to date. We need hardly say that it is written with the lucidity and naturalness characteristic of all Sir John's popular writings. A list of Ii8 specially drawn illustrations help to make the text clear wherever necessary, and students will find the bibliography of works referred to in these pages a great help, as references to various authorities on the different subjects herein discussed. The Folk-Lore of Plants, by T. F. Thistelton Dyer (London : Chatto & Windus). The author is already well and favourably known as an authority upon the increasingly interesting subject of Folk-lore. The old-world sayings and beliefs regarding plants are, perhaps, more voluminous than those concerning any other group of natural objects. Consequently within the last few years several works have appeared on the fascinating subject, amongst which the principal are those of the Rev. Hilderic-Friend and Mr. Richard Folkard. When we remember how the supposed virtues of plants have been associated not only with planetary influence, but also with medicine and witchcraft, as well as with hypothetical protection from diabolical influences, it cannot be wondered at that most of our common wild plants are linked with the hitherto unwritten history of the fears, hopes, thoughts, and beliefs of the unlettered masses of the people. Mr. Dyer's book is pre-eminently readable, and in its variety of treatment he covers a larger ground than any of his fellow-writers on the subject. This will be seen by the following headings of the chapters : — "Plant Life," "Primitive and Savage Notions respecting Plants," "Plant Worship," "Lightning Plants," "Plants in Witchcraft," "Plants in Demonology," " Plants in Fairy-Lore," " Love Charms," "Dream Plants," "Plants and the Weather," "Plant Proverbs," "Plants and their Ceremonial use," "Plant Names," "Plant Lan- guage," "Fabulous Plants," " Doctrine of Signa- tures," "Plants and the Calendar," "Sacred Plants," " Plant Superstitions," " Plants in Folk Medicine," "Plants and their Legendary History," "Mystic Plants." Star Atlas, with Explanatory Texts, by Hermann J. Klein ; translated and adapted for English readers by Edmund McClure, M.A. (London: S.P.C.K.). The increasing interest in astronomical observation is best shown by the establishment of provincial astronomical societies, of which that at Liveriwol is a HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SI P. 41 distinguished example. This is largely due to the abundant high class literature on the subject, of which the labours of the late Richard Proctor form no small element. His Star Maps have long been in use by amateur astronomers, which latter class has been largely called into existence by means of the highly-finished and low-priced telescopes turned out by John Browning and others. The " Star Atlas " before us contains eighteen maps, printed by E. A. Funke, of Leipsic. They are exquisite examples of star-mapping and star-grouping. The young as- tronomer possessed of a telescope, will find this atlas of the utmost service. The Rev. E. McClure's translation is exceedingly lucid and interesting. Plafietafy and Stellar Studies, by John Ellard Gore (London : Roper & Drowley). A well-printed and attractively-got-up little volume, containing papers which the author has contributed to various periodicals, all of which, however, have been re- written and brought up to date, in addition to six chapters which have not appeared in print before. The illustrations are unusually good, and altogether we commend this work to the notice of all our readers interested in astronomy. The Invisible Faivers of Nature, by E. M. Calliard (London : John Murray). Perhaps there is no scientific subject more repellent to the popular mind than the study of physics ; in spite of the education in the subject by the science classes under South Kensington. Nevertheless, there are few departments of research which present such fascinating or practical results. The author's title is an excellent one, and he works it out admirably, for it is the " invisible powers " of nature which affect us more than the "visible." So we have chapters on gravitation, . molecular attraction, the properties of gases, liquids, and solids, heat, light, colour, sound, electricity, and magnetism. The writer tells us his book is intended for readers who love to hear of wonderful things. Entomology for Beginners, by Dr. A. S. Packard (New York: Henry Holt & Co.). Dr. Packard is well known throughout the English-speaking countries of the world as one of the best of living economic entomologists, and this book cannot fail to add to his fame as a popular writer on this important subject. It is illustrated by nearly 300 excellent woodcuts, and the author tells us he intended it "for the use of young folks, fruit-growers, farmers, and gardeners." The work gives a full description of the structures of insects, their growth and metamor- phosis, a synopsis of their classification, and of insect architecture. Then we have a useful chapter on insects injurious and beneficial to agriculture ; and a lengthy but not less useful one, giving directions to all sorts of beginners for collecting, preserving, and rearing insects. Two other sections will be useful to microscopists and biologists generally, for they deal with the various methods of dissecting insects as well as mounting them whole and cutting sections of them for microscopic examination. Mention should also be made of the bibliography of the subject, which is one of the fullest we have yet come across. To complete the excellence of this admirable manual, there is a lengthy glossary, and a copious index. The Bacon-Shakspeare Question, by C. Stopes (London : T. G. Johnson). The " fad " of Donelly's is over. The " cryptogram " went up like a rocket, and came down like the stick. Many Shakspearean scholars thought it beneath them to answer the man ; but the authoress of this book very properly imagined that silence might be construed into con- sent. The consequence is a most valuable contri- bution to Shakspearean literature, a useful and ready manual to lovers of Shakspeare who have not time to answer cavillers, and a valuable help to the student of English literature. We cordially commend the work. Latid and Freshwater Shells, by J. W. Williams, J. W. Taylor, and W. Denison Roebuck (London : Swan Sonnenschein & Co.). This is one of the shilling volumes of the "Young Collector Series," and the names of the authors are a guarantee for its conchological accuracy and value. The illustrations (thirty-four in number) and descriptions are excellent. The " census " of the authenticated distribution of these moUusca at the end of the volume, will be found useful to others than " Young Collectors." A Classified Index of Mr. G. W. Silve)'s Collec- tion of New Zealand Birds, by Sir Walter L. Buller (London : E. A. Petherick). This very handsomely-got-up and well-printed volume, with descriptive notes of the New Zealand birds by the one ornithologist who has best and longest studied them — Sir W. L. Buller — is a useful contribution to geographical ornithology. The ex- cellent woodcuts are mainly borrowed from Sir Walter's "Birds of New Zealand." Many of our readers will remember the birds described in this " Index," for they were exhibited at the " Colinderies," in the New Zealand Court in 1886. A Class-Book of Elementary Chemistry, by W. W. Fisher, M. A. (Oxford : Clarendon Press). Altogether a superior manual, as one would expect from its publishing source. It exhibits an unusual teaching power, and a simplicity of classification rarely seen in elementary works on this important subject. Chemistry is now very properly becoming a part of regular school work, and we can recommend no better manual to the higher schools than this. Truth for its own Sake: The Story of Charles Darwin (London : Swan Sonnenschein & Co.). This charming little book is written by Mr. W. Mawer, F.G.S., for "young people;" and the latter could not have a simpler or more interesting description of the great man than Mr. Mawer has given them. Primer of Micro- Petrology, by W. Mawer (London : Office of "Life-Lore"). We are frequently asked 42 HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. by beginners to recommend them an elementary manual on this important and fascinating subject. Now we are able to do so by noting the cheap, well-written, and well-illustrated little book above- named. Electric Bells and all about Them, by S. R. Bottone (London : Whittaker & Co.). The author of this useful little work is well known to all practical electricians ; and those who desire to know the theory and practice of electric bells (and their number must be legion, considering the immense quantity of such bells in use) cannot do better than procure and read this book. We are pleased to see that the following useful books (which were duly noticed in our columns when they appeared) have gained public approval by the demand for extra editions — Elements of Mineralogy, by r. Rutley (London : Murby). Third edition. Nature''s Fairy-Land, by H. Worsley-Benison (London : Eliot Stock). Second edition. The Playtime Naturalist, by Dr. J. E. Taylor, F.L.S., &c., editor of Science-Gossip (London : Chatto & Windus). Our relation with regard to this book does not allow of any comment upon it, except to say that it is well bound and printed, that the 366 illustrations come out very well, and that the price is 5^'. Perhaps the editor of Science- Gossip would not mind the author of "The Play- time Naturalist" quoting the following from the preface, as showing the scope of the work : — -"The writer has a liking for intelligent English lads, just as some people have for blue china and etchings. He even ventures to think the former are more interesting objects. And, as the writer was once a boy himself, and vividly remembers the never-to-be- forgotten rambles and observations of the objects surrounding us in the country ; and, moreover, as he treasures up such reminiscences as the most pleasant and innocent of an active man's life, he thought he could not do better than enlist this younger genera- tion in the same loves and pleasures. He has endeavoured to do his best for his human hobbies, that their lives may be richer and sweeter and more manly, for what he has introduced them to in the following pages." OUR SCIENTIFIC DIRECTORY. [The Editor will be obliged, if, for the benefit of his numerous readers, secretaries of scientific societies will send notices like the following, also place and time of meeting.] RISTOL Microscopical Society : Hon. Secretary, H. A. Francis. B Chichester and West Sussex Natural History and Microscopical Society : President, J. Anderson, jun. ; Hon. Secretaries, A.Lloyd, F.C.S., F.E.S., Freeman W. Hunt. City of London College Science Society: President, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., etc. ; Hon. Secretaries, Mr. W. L. Fulcher, Mr. A. C. Young, F.C.S. Geologists' Association : President, F. W. Rudler, F.G.S. (Hon. Sec. Anth. Inst.) ; Secretaries, John Fullerton, M.D., F.G.S., B. B. Woodward, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. LLackney Microscopical and Natural LListory Society : President, M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S. ; Hon. Secretaries, Collis Willmott, F.R.M.S., J. T. Powell. LTarrogate and District Naturalist and Scientific Society : President, John Naughton ; Hon. Secretary, F. R. Fitzgerald. LLertfordshire Natural LListory Society and Field Club: President, F. Maule Campbell, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., F.E.S. ; Hon. Secretaries, F. G. Lloyd, C. E. Shelly, B.A., M.B. L^eds Geological Association : President, C. D. Hardcastle ; Hon. Secretary, Samuel A. Adamson, F.G.S. Liverpool Geological Society: President, Henry C. Beasley ; Hon. Secretary, William Hewitt, B.Sc. Penzance Natural Llistory and Antiquarian Society : President, Thomas Cornish, Esq. ; Secretary, George Fox Tregelles, Esq. Wolverha7npton Literary and Scientific Society : President, The Ven. F. W. Farrar, D.D. (Archdeacon of Westminster) ; Hon. Secretaries, Chas. R. Smith, Horace Percy Smith. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Mr. Mattieu Williams has an interesting paper in " Scientific News " on the origin of petroleum and anthracite. He shows how, by slowly and moderately heating certain kinds of coal in an iron or brick retort, we shall obtain real petroleum and a porous coke which, on the application of pressure, becomes true anthracite. This, he shows, is the way in which it is formed in the coal-beds. Above and below the coal- seams are porous strata, through which the petroleum percolates and eventually rises to the surface like a water-spring. This accounts for its occurrence in Silurian, Devonian, and other non-coal-bearing regions. During November and December, Dr. J. E. Taylor, Editor of Science-Gossip, delivered popular extemporaneous lectures (illustrated both with diagrams and lime-light views) on " Carnivorous Plants," "The Great Ice Age," "The Natural History of Fish," "The Natural History of the Amphibia and Reptiles," " Earthquakes and Volcanoes," and a " Naturalist's Holiday in Aus- tralia," to large audiences at Beccles, Hadleigh, the HA RD WICKE'S S CIENCE- G OS SI P. 43 Museum at Ipswich, the Midland Institutes Union at Birmingham, and ,' the Literary and Philosophical Societies of York, Hull, and Wolverhampton. Mr. G. H. Morton, jun., read a paper on "The Agreement of Colour Theories with Practical Experi- ence," before the Art Congress,' Liverpool. He dwells on the difference between the three primary colours of the artist and those of the physicist. Those of the former are the pigments red, yellow, and blue, while those of the latter are the sensations — red, green, and violet. The artist's red is of a violet hue, whilst the physicist's is a yellow-red, or orange. One set contains the mean between two colours of the other set ; thus the violet of the physicist's set is obtained by mixing the red and blue of the artist's set, and the artist's blue by mixing together the physicist's red and green. The hue of a primary pigment is that one which will mix with the greatest number of colours and still retain its brightness. As a rule the hue of each primary pigment tends towards blue and away from red. This is. explained by the vibratory theory of light. The primary blue pig- ment has more of a green than a violet hue. All colours are sensations caused by the action of light on the retina of the eye. Each of the three sets of nerves when excited, produces a colour, thus there is in reality no colour outside ourselves, and a pigment is not really a colour, but an object which causes the sensation of colour. From this we see that the physicist's are the true primary colours, viz. orange, green, and violet. The Rev. Dr. Hind, rector of Honington, assisted by Professor Churchill Babington, D.D., F.L.S., rector of Cockfield, is about to bring out " The Flora of Suffolk," a Topographical enumeration of the plants of the county, showing the results of former observations and of the most recent researches. The work will contain an introductory chapter on the geology, climate, and meteorology of Suffolk, by Wheelton Hind, M.D., F.R.C.S., and will be published by Gurney and Jackson, successors to Van Voorst, Paternoster Row. Mr. C. J. Watkins, King's Mill House, Pains- wick, Gloucestershire, sends us a list of selected scales of Lepidoptera, &c., unmounted, in packets. Each packet contains a named portion of wing, sufficient to mount two or three good slides of detached scales. There is a good variety, and the price is low. We have received from Messrs. J. Wiggin and Son, Jpswich, a " Youth's Half-Crown Chemical Cabinet." Its contents are both varied and interesting, and it is without doubt the cheapest set of Elementary ' Chemical Apparatus we have seen. Messrs. Ewart and Son, 64 Euston Road, London, N.W., have, in addition to their well-known Lightning Geyser for heating water for a bath, &c., brought out a smaller one (No. 5) "for the many occasions when a small quantity of boiling water is required." It is made of copper throughout, and is carefully tinned next the water. It produces boiling water at the rate of a pint a minute, and is therefore useful for dentists' operating rooms, bedrooms, kitchens, &c. Mr. B. Piffard, of Hemel Hempstead, writes to say that the fossil from the chalk referred to in our Geol. column last month as a Cone of Taxus, turns out on further examination to be a coprolite. The Huddersfield School Board have started a Natural History Society. The chairman of the School Board, J. W. Robson, Esq., is president. The rules are a model of what such Societies should be. A comprehensive and attractive programme consist- ing of Lantern Lectures, and Rambles, Pic-Nics, and Flower-Shows, has been drawn up. We wish the Board Schools everywhere would adopt this new departure, and we congratulate the Huddersfield School Board on setting so good an example. At the last meeting of the Geologists' Association the following papers were read : " On some Bagshot Pebble Beds and Pebble Gravel," by Horace W. Moncton and R. S. Herries ; " On the Palaeontology of Sturgeons," by A. Smith Woodward. Parts 6 and 7 of the "Illustrated Manual of British Birds," by Howard Saunders (and published by Gurney and Jackson), are to hand. They fully maintain the high reputation for artistic merit and good letter-press, gained by the preceding numbers. We have received Mr. Wm. Wesley's comprehen- sive Natural History catalogue of books relating chiefly to Microscopic Zoology, Entomology, and Conchology. MICROSCOPY. Microscope Slides.— We have received two most interesting slides from Mr. E. Hinton, 12, Varley Road, Upper Holloway, N. The first is a specimen of Hydra viridis, exquisitely clean, with the natural colour preserved, and the tentacles fully ex- tended ; it is intended to be used with the Paraboloid. The second is the Medusiform gonozooid of Obelta genkulata, one of the Hydroids. It has been killed in sea-water, and the delicate tentacles (of which there is an immense number) are fully exserted as in life, the manubrium is also well shown. The preparation is most interesting, and, without doubt, many micro- scopists would be glad to see the phenomenon of the Medusa life of the Hydroid, as it cannot often be obtained. The Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, besides containing its Transactions and Proceedings and a summary of current research in 44 HA RD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G 0 SSIP. zoology, botany, and microscopy, has ' ' A Revision of the Qgxm.'s, Aiiliscus, Ehrb., and some Allied Genera," by John Rattray ; and also a " Note on the Large Size of the Spicules of Acis orientalis," by F. Jeffrey Bell. Celloidin. — Some reader (I forgot the name), three months ago asked for information about Celloidin. The following is from the " Microtomist's Vade Mecum," by A. B. Lee :— Celloidin is a pre- paration of pure pyroxylin, patented for Germany and England, under the name of " Schering's Celloidin." It is manufactured by the Chemische Fabrik auf Actien (vorm. E. Schering), Berlin, N. Fenstrasse, II, 12. It may be obtained through the post by writing to Schering's Griine Apotheke, Wiltick and Benkendorf, Berlin, N. Chaussee-Strasse, No. 19. •' The tablets cost three marks (three shillings) each. A single tablet would, I think, suffice for im- bedding many hundreds of embryos." If the above is not what you want, write again, and I will give any information in my power. I SHOULD be much obliged if any one would tell me how to prepare a coffee-bean for section, cutting in a Rivet-Leyser microtome. Dr. Marsh says to soak them in water till soft, but I found that they begun to germinate long before they were soft enough for section-cutting. Can any one tell me the price of the Cambridge Rocking Microtome, where it is to be got, and whether it works well, also the price of the Thoma Microtome ? — M. J. Enock's Entomological Slides. — We have received two most useful and instructive preparations byW. F. Enock, illustrating the "life-history" of the Hessian Fly {Cccidoniyia destructor). The eggs are shown in silk on the leaf of barley, and the larvre in the skin. We may add that Mr. Enock has just presented to the British Museum, South Kensington, nineteen specimens (mounted dry) illustrative of the various stages and appearances of infested barley and wheat, which are placed in the new gallery devoted to economic entomology. Microscopical Society of Calcutta. — This flourishing society has issued " Keys," for the use of members, to the Desmids, Diatoms, Fresh-water Algae, and some Genera of Infusoria. These " keys " are all printed on one sheet, and at the bottom are the initials W. J. S. ZOOLOGY. ECDYSIS. — I take this opportunity of thanking Mr. James Harvey for so kindly affording the information contained in his paper on " The Ecdysis of Insects," which appears in the October number of Science- Gossip received by last mail. Mr. Harvey's paper serves a double purpose : it places on record a practical drawing and note of his observations on PedicuJus capitis, and it enables me to associate his observa- tions, and mine (on Phthirius inguinalis) with Mr. S. J. M'Intire's on a " Spider's Foot," which I have lately found recorded in Science-Gossip, Vol. V. (1869), p. 136. — W. J. Simmotis, Calcutta. The British Mollusca, — Having recently ex- amined a copy of the " Shell-Collectors' Handbook," by J. W. Williams, I may perhaps be permitted to offer a few remarks concerning the descriptions given of certain varieties therein, for the benefit of those who have the book. Limncca stagnalis, var. eleganttda (p. 78), to the description given of this may be added : " Shell much smaller than type, animal tinged with orange," The variety figured on p. 79 (Fig. 9), appears to have no name, but it may be called var. compressa, a name 1 gave it in MS. long ago. Arion ate}-, several described varieties might be added to the list given, and also szx. fasciata, v. nov., a variety with bands resembling A. subfuscus, which I described (but did not name) in the " Zoologist," from Ireland some time ago. Limax agrestis, some varieties might be added, including var. grisca, v. nov., entirely dark greyish, which I found in Lancashire and recorded in " Naturalist," 1888, p. 55. Limax arborum, var. *'■ dicipiens''' (p. 92), should be decipiens. Helix aspcrsa var. seniifusca (p. 108), for "third whorl," read " third band." The dark variety of the animal II, aspersa, which I called nigrescens, may be changed to nigricans, because there is already a var. nigrescens of the shell. Helix hortensis,\zx. roseozonata (p. ill), the description should be : " Shell pale or whitish, with rose-coloured bands." The description given on p. 1 1 1 belongs to var. rufozonaia. It is probably best to keep the varietal name albina for the white shells of H. hortcnsis, and use subalbida for those which are very pale yellow, almost white. — T. D. A. Cockerell, West Cliff, Colorado. Love-Darts in Snails. — I should be glad if Dr. J. W, Williams, or any of your correspondents, will inform me whether the dart or spiculum amoris is present in Helix throughout the year, or only in the breeding season. I ask this because I have lately been experimenting on hybernating specimens of //. aspersa, and have failed in every case to find anything approaching " a sharp calcareous " dart as Morgan describes it. — C. A. W. Trout Cijlture. — The Howietoun Fishery in issuing the price list for season 1888-89, records one of the coldest summers experienced since the com- mencement of the Fishery. Yearlings are fully three weeks later than usual. The rearing season, how- ever, has been exceptionally successful, and fully one hundred and fifty thousand yearlings and twenty-five thousand two-year-olds are ready for delivery. A salmon hatched from ova obtained from the Forth District Board in December, 1880, and reared in the ponds, having spawned three seasons, was found in HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 45 the first week of November this year to be clean. It weighed just under three pounds, was very silvery, with about thirty jet-black starlike spots. The flesh cut pink, and the flavour was that of a fish a week in fresh water. This salmon had been fed exclusively on clams (pectctt), and was a fair specimen of those still alive at Howietoun of the same spawning. The smolts and grilse which have been bred from these fish are growing more rapidly than their parents, and we hope to show that although the first generation of artificially land-locked salmon are usually dwarfed, yet their progeny may attain to the size of Loch Leven trout— viz., 6 to lo lbs. weight. The American land-locked salmon (.S". sebago) have not yet spawned, but a few of the rainbow trout {S. irideus) spawned in April, and the fry are thriving ; the largest irideus weighed, when three years old, between three and four pounds. The crosses between salmon and trout, and between trout and salmon, are growing at the average rate of Loch Leven trout at Howietoun. The experiments in inter-breeding these crosses will be continued this season. — Thomas Winder, 8 1 Watson Road, Sheffield. Sinistral var. of Littorina rudis.— It may be interesting to record, that I found two young reversed specimens of Littoriita rudis the other day, whilst examining some drift from the Weymouth Backwater. They are very immature and of course only dead shells. I fancy that there is a large specimen of this monstrosity in the Liverpool public Museum from the Gaskoin cabinet. — B. Tomlin. BOTANY. The Sunflower. — Permit me to add to Mr. W. Lett's remarks on the Sunflower, that the popular notion as to the movement of the flowers has been exploded in Dr. Vine's Vegetable Physiology, but in that work it is stated that sunflowers have a fixed light position which is towards the S.E., if the situation is an open one. In my garden the aspect is open on all sides except the west, and there are two groups of sunflowers. In one I counted ninety heads, of which thirty-eight faced the S.E., and in the other, twenty- seven heads, of which eleven turned to the S.E. In the two groups eight flowers turned to the N.W., and the others were at intermediate angles between that point and the S.E. A closer examination showed that at least one hundred of S.E. heads were the larger terminal ones which first open, and that with- out exception the large terminal heads were turned to the S.E. I therefore came to the conclusion, that the fixed light position only applies to the terminal heads. It is well known that light from the S.E. is most active in producing heliotropism. Sonchus arvensis is an example of several plants in which the flowers bend to the sun at dawn, and following it with at first an increasing and then a decreasing rapidity until the S.E. is reached, when the more intense light checks growth. In the evening, when the light fails, the peduncles straighten themselves by negative geotropism, and are ready to repeat the operation next morning. The peduncles of sunflowers are less sus- ceptible to changes of light, as the permanent stage of growth sets in earlier than in plants where the peduncle continues elongating. The sunflower be- haves similarly to, though not quite the same as the flowers of (Egopodium podagraria, Anthriscus vulgaris. Milium, Achillea millefolium, and the ox-eye daisy, in which the fixed light position is upright in an open situation, and lateral, where the plants grow under a wall or in a hedge. — y. Jfavison, Bedford. Abnormal Growth of Plantago Maritima. — Is it not unusual to find the small bracts of this plant developed to a length of two or more inches ? A considerable number of examples I have met with at Hermitage, Emsworth, had all the flowers on the spike subtended by monstrous bracts, taking the form of leaves. Indeed, in some instances, all the floral organs seemed to have assumed that appearance. Has any one observed a similar instance ? — F. H. Arnold. Alchemilla Vulgaris. — In the "Student's Flora," 1878, Sir J. D. Hooker, in describing this plant, says : '* Moist pastures and streams, except in the S. E. of England." In May, 1886, I found a patch of A. vulgaris by a country roadside, not far from Maidstone. A. arvefisis was alco growing near. Is A. vulgaris rare in the south-east ? — Henry Lamb, Maidstone. SoNCHUS palustris. — This summer I found the marsh sow-thistle growing abundantly in this district. Many of the plants were about 7 feet in height, with stems about an inch and a half in diameter. — Henry Lamb, Maidstone. GEOLOGY, &c. Supposed Cones in the Chalk. — Since sending my note about the cones in chalk, Mr. Etheridge, in consultation with Mr. Carruthers, has changed his mind, and says they are coprolites. One thing is certain, that they resemble cones exactly, whicli coprolites have never done. There are also copro- lites more resembling the ordinary form found with them.— A Piffard. Society of Amateur Geologists. — We are pleased to observe the steady progress of this Society, which has now entered on its fifth year. Abstracts of the following papers read before the Society during the past year have been issued : " The Metallic Ores of Cornwall," by W. Semmons (Presidential Address) ; "Geological Age of Moun- tains," by J. Logan Lobley, F.G.S. ; "Lizard Dis- trict," by A. H. Williams; " Some Older Volcanic 46 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Areas of Britain," by Grenville A.J.Cole. F.G.S. ; "Water Supply of the Metropolis," by G. F. Harris, F.G.S. "Work of Prehistoric Artizans," by W. J. L. Abbott; "Geology of the Isle of Purbeck," by Professor G. S. Boulger, F.L.S. F.G.S. ; " Silver Ore Deposits of New South W^ales," by W. Clunies Ross, B.Sc, and " Some Notes on a Chalk Section at Grays," by J. T. Day. The report for the past year shows that there have been excursions to the Museum of Practical Geology ; to Erith and Crayford ; to Hampstead ; to Caterham and Tilburstow Hill ; and to Ealing. The Meetings are held in the City (lo Arthur Street West, London Bridge). Professor Boulger, F.L.S., F.G.S,, is the new President. Gault Fossils. — I have observed the inquiry of J. H. A. Verinder, " How to preserve Gault Fossils," and the reply of Mr. W. E. Windus. I have had no experience of " Picture Mastic Varnish," but should think it too thick a varnish for the purpose, and with some specimens would be very difficult to apply. I have some Ammonites, Scaphites, and other fossils characteristic of this formation, which I obtained some years ago at Folkestone. I at once carefully washed and dried them, and then gave them a covering of " Gum Acacia " dissolved in water. No signs of crumbling or disintegration can be seen ; and the beautiful natural colours are as bright and iri- descent as when I took them from the Folkestone Chffs. I have been accustomed to treat Fossil ferns from the coal measures in this way, and I have specimens of Lycopodium, Lepidodendron, Pecopteris, &c. ; which reveal all the details of structure, with the sharpness of outline and beauty of appearance, which can be obtained (as far as I know) by no other process. In- deed the general plan in Museums and private collections, is to let them alone ; with the result, that the ferns crumble away, and .the specimen is rendered of little practical use or value. Whereas, one appli- cation of Gum Acacia will set the ferns, and unless they are exposed to strong sunlight, or undue heat, they will retain all their beauty, and show up rich and black against the Shale or sandstone, and require no further attention for many years. — T. S. King, F.G.S. NOTES AND QUERIES. The Mild Weather before Christmas. — Through the mildness of the weather that we have been favoured witli this winter, there are many records of plants flowering, birds nesting, and other works of nature which otherwise only occur during the summer months. Norfolk has been no exception to this rule, for a gentleman in Norwich had, during December, a good supply of peas growing in his garden, and they no doubt formed a relishing addition to his winter fare. Another writes to a local paper, stating that he had strawberries for his Christmas tea of which he plucked a quantity that morning, whilst another (also in a letter to] a local paper) confidently asserts that he heard the notes of a cuckoo. At Yarmouth, a partridge's nest was found on .Sunday, December 29th, amongst some furze bushes, containing fourteen eggs ; whilst roses, chrysanthemums, daisies, pansies, wild and garden primroses, and many other plants were in full bloom in open gardens and the surrounding districts. — J. B. Beckett, Trinity Place, Friars Lane, Great Yarmouth. The Mildness of the Season.— December 6th is quite phenomenal : primroses are in bloom in the lanes between this and Caerphilly. Thrushes and robins vie with each other in song. To-day I heard the note of the blackbird, and the merry twitter of finches made the air alive with sounds familiar to early spring months instead of the dark side of Christmas. — IV. //. Harris, Cardiff. The Warm Weather. — No doubt notes of unseasonable flowers in bloom have reached you, but the following may be, worth recording. A nosegay brought me yesterday contained : winter coltsfoot, yellow jasmine, orange marigold, greater leopard's bane, white musk mallow, white double fever-few, crane's-bill (Herb Robert), [lesser alkanet {A. offici- nalis), fronds of male shield fern. Altogether, a curious mixture of flowers of different seasons. — M. E. Pope. Longevity in a Beetle. — Occidit Idus Novembres Calosoma Sycophanta, exsequias ite frequenter coleoptcra, captured in a leaf-strewn oak copse behind the Marienburg at Treves at the end of June or beginning of July last, he has kept company with me for the space of four months, and had doubtless seen happy hours among the fallen leaves before we met. This is a green old age in insect-life which numbers its days at a fortnight. While he lived I fed him on raw meat and earthworms ; he went with me up to town, where his last repast was a gigantic worm from the neighbourhood of the Regent's-park Canal, that stretched to half a foot or more ; he tackled it finely, although he had long been feeble and ailing. He was a great favourite with our girl Mary at Ramsgate, on account of his shiny coat, otherwise his manners were objectionable. Of him it may be said that death has not tarnished his comeliness. The beautiful beetle has ceased to live. — A. H. Stvittton, Gery Stj'cet, Bedford. A Singular Feature in an Explosive Mixture, — The house in which I write has been the scene of a gas explosion that has scorched or cracked the cornices, blown out panes of glass, and committed direct personal injury by the ignition of hair. I was asleep at the time in a room on the top flat, with my door shut. My top pane of glass went smash, and directly beneath on the washhand-stand there remains a white blur as if a bombshell flung at it had there burst. These explosions around the lines of least re- sistance, and the solitary explosion in my room, so remote from the centre of disturbance, are both curious and remarkable as illustrating a law of nature. The accident is attributed to the opening of a window in a room where a light had been lit, and in which a gas escape had taken place owing to the lowering of a gaselier found to be defective. — A. H. Swinton. A Flea's Life, &c.— We should be glad if some of your readers would kindly give us information on the following points. What are the phases of a flea's life ? Does the tlea pass through the different stages of larva, pupa and imago, or is the perfect insect hatched from an egg ? Are white moles common ? Two have been found in this part at an interval of some months, and at places a mile or so away from each other. Are HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. 47 apple-trees often observed to blossom twice in the same year ? We gathered several flowers on September 19th, 18S8, off two trees both loaded with ripening fruit. — N. P. Chrzastow, Poland. [P.S. — See the paper on the " Development of a Flea's Egg " (with copious illustrations), in November No. of Science-Gossip, 1885.— Ed. S.-G.] The "Wandering Jew." — Can any of your Canadian readers give the botanical name of the creeping plant known locally as " Wandering Jew " ? It is found in the North-West Provinces, particularly, I believe, in Manitoba. — John Christie. Wild Flowers at Christmas. — During a walk from Burton to Tutbury, on Saturday Dec. 22nd, I found the following plants in flower : — Stellaria media, Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Geranium molle, Genm tir- banum, Anthriscus sylvestris, Bellis perennis, Matri- caria inodoricm, Senecio vulgaris, Taraxacum officinale, Veronica Buxbaumii, Lamium album. I also found Saxifraga tridactylites, Coiiium maculatum, and rose bushes with spring leaves. — Jno. E. Nozvers, Btirton. On Christmas Day I found the following plants in flower near Burton : — Ranunculus repens. Lychnis alba, Geranium molle, Geum zirbdnum, Anthriscus sylvestris, Bellis perennis, Senecio vulgaris, Crepis virens, Sojtchus asper, Lamium purpur cum, Lamitim album, Veronica Buxbaumii. The honeysuckle was in leaf, in several places by the roadside.— ^^"t'- E- Nowers, Burton. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. A. B.— The eggs reached us in a very shrivelled and dried- up condition. They appear to be those of the common Earth- worm. Marv E. — Yoii had best apply to the secretary of the Entomological Society for information about Miss Ormerod's paper on Preserving fruit from Caterpillars. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un- dertake to insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names. To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their oflfers are simply Disguised Advertisements, forthepurposeof evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken o( onr gratuitous insertion of " exchanges " which cannot be tolerated. We request that all exchanges may be signed with name {or initials) and full address at the end. Special Note. — There is a tendency on the part of some exchangers to send more than one per month. We only allow this in the case of writers of papers. Lost, or arrested in transit, the botanical circulating maga- zine, " Sachsiana." Any member having it in his possession will please forward it to J. Hamson, Bedford. B. B. Le T.— We have looked through all the late Frank Buckland's works, but cannot find any account of the " Beavers of Bute." Perhaps it appeared in " Land and Water," or some of our correspondents may be able to inform you. A. Verindek. — We have not heard who is editing the new edition of " Carpenter on the Microscope." The coloured plate of Foraminifera appeared in the September number of Science-Gossip vol. for 1885. W. J. L.— The desirability of publishing another "General Classified Index" to the vols, of Science-Gossip is under consideration for the end of the present year, when we shall have completed the 25th vol., and hope to celebrate our " Silver Wedding ! " A. Mavfield. — Lastrea multijlora does not exist as a British species of fern. We believe it was a name given to a variety by Newman, but which does not appear to have been generally adopted. J. C.— The fossil is Ammonites cati7iatus. The fragment of stone is a partially metamorphosed volcanic ash. B. D. P. — Your second paper shall appear in due course. W. H. Thrush. — A Queen Elizabeth's shilling varies in value from two to iive shillings, and a sixpence from one to two shillings, according to condition. A. G. Hammond. — Is your account of the Fossil Hunt illustrated 1 Send it on. EXCHANGES. Offered, Fossil shells from the Paris basin, in exchange for British or other fossils, recent exotic shells, or prehistoric implements. — Monsieur Bonnet, 9 Rue de Mazagran, Paris. Rare Australian, New Zealand, and other foreign shells, mostly land and freshwater, or large examples of U. pictorum, for any of the following : Vertigo Lilljeborgi, V. tumida, V. alpestris, J^. pusilla, Sticcinea P/eifferi, Sph. lacustris, var. Rickholtii, Pisid. nitidtim, var. splendens, L. peregra, vars. picta, ?ntidit, succincrformis , and stagnali/ormis, L, auricu- laria, vars. monardi and magna, L. stagnalis, vars. variegata and roseolabiata, Z. fulvus, var. viridula, H. aspersa, var. virescens, -H. riipestris, var. viridescenti-alba, CI. latninata, var. atbida, Coch. trideiis, var. crystallina, Coch. lubrica, vars. hyalina and viridiila. — W. A. Gain, Tuxford, Newark. Thirty or forty histological specimens of normal tissues, all different, in exchange for low powers (2, 3, or 4 inch, universal screw) or sub-stage condenser,] li in. diameter. — J. Herbert Frederick, Kornthal, Sidcup. Wanted, Coddington lens, and few preserved snakes, lizards, etc. Can oiler choice micro slides, parasites, diatoms, anatomical, botanical, etc. — Suter, 5 Highweek Road, Totten- ham. ^1 Duplicate diatom micro slides in exchange for others. Lists 1 exchanged. — E. A. Hutton, Mottram, Manchester. V Wanted, offers of good named British or foreign marine shells, Forbes' " British Starfishes," or Gosse's " Actinologia Britannica," for the following: Science-Gossip, half-calf. 1873-4, 1875-5, 1878-9; "The Microscope," fifth edition, by Carpenter ; " Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates," by Owen ; " Manual of Botany," fifth edition, by Balfour. Condition, nearly new. — Write first to H. C. Chadwick, Beech Road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester. Thirty-six varieties downs of British birds, including sand- grouse, offered in exchange for two well-mounted slides, or other unmounted micro material. — W. Sim, Gourdas, Fyvie, N.B.' For exchange, A. cygnea, D. folymorplia, P. contecta, P. albus, corneus, and spirorbis, L. peregra, L. nitidus, M. nemoralis, kortensis, and arbTtstoriiiit, B. obscurus, Coch. iridens, &c. Wanted, '/". contortus, P. vortex, H. virgata, Cantiana, caperata, ericetorum, CI. bipticata, and many others. — Thomas Smith, Park Hill Cottages, near Burnley, Lancashire. Wanted, good woiks, with plates, on the Continental eocene and miocene formations. Offered, large selections of exotic shells, British fossils, minerals, scientific and philosophical works, or state requirements. — J. E. Linter, Arragon Close, Twickenham. Wanted immediately, larva, pupa and imago of privet hawk moth, in good preservation ; will give in exchange Dawson's "Chain of Life" (new). — Sphinx Ligustri, 80 Clifton Street, Lytham. Duplicates. — Cardamines, sylvanus, pamphilus, alexis, urticse, Jacobs, caja, auriflua, ulmata, dispar, fulvata, chi, and mensuraria. Desiderata numerous. — F. Emsley, 98 West Street, Leeds. Offered, spherulite and pitchstone from Arran, white dolerite and volcanic bombs, Ayrshire. Wanted, fossils. — I. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning. Wanted, to correspond with collectors with the view of exchanging the rarer kinds of rissoas, and other rare shells. Desiderata very numerous, including mangelias and odostomias. Lists sent.— A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teign- mouth. Offered in exchange, the following micro objects: star- shaped Placcntula asterisans, striated Orbulites striata, wrinkled Polystomella crispa, Nutnmulites complanatus, rare and fine spines of echinus, minute corals and shells, very small and perfect, and rare sorts. Wanted, Pecten glaber, V. sulcata {from the Adriatic Sea), also Pecten niveus, Trochus granulatiis, Anomia striata, Pecten tigrinus, Scalaria turtonur, lanthina exigua, I. rotundata, and Emarginula Jissura.—A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth. Duplicates. — Spk. rivicola, U. inargaritifcr, D. poly- morpha, P. contecta, V. piscittalis and cristata, PI. albus, glaber, dilatatus, spirorbis and contortus, L. triincatula, palustris and glabra, Z. glaber, nitidus and purus, H. sericea, arbustonim and hispida. Pupa secale. Cock, iridens, &c. &c. Wanted, H. lamellata andpygmaa; no other species wanted. — F. C Long, 8 Cog Lane, Burnley, Lanes. An injecting syringe and Parke's micro lamp, in exchange for portable microscope, or offers. Also two first parts of Saville Kent's "Infusoria."—!. S.Williams, Livingstone Villa, Iffley Road, Oxford. , „ ,„ Offered, the " Conchologist's Text-book" (Macgillivray), "Entomologist's Text-book," with coloured plates (Westwood), 48 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. " Half-hours with the Microscope" (Tuffin West), twenty odd numbers of the " Entomologist," previous to 1870, "Insect Hunters" (Newman). Wanted, Rimmer's "Land and Fresh- water Shells," side-blown eggs, shells, &c. — Thos. H. Hed- worth, Dunston, Gateshead. Sheep flukes (unmounted) in exchange for other interesting object. — I. S. Williams, Livingstone Villa, Iffley Road, Oxford. Wanted, English regal or Colonial copper coins, 17th or 1 8th century tokens, also war or other medals, in exchange for named English shells or fossils. — F. Stanley, Margate. Wanted, the two last volumes, or any odd numbers from 166, of C. £. Sowerby's small edition of "English Botany," containing plants of Great Britain. Good exchange. — Mrs. Bishop, The Platts, Watford. Duplicates. — lo, S. ligustri, ligniperda, tipuUformis, saiubucata, tiliaria, rhomboidaria, phragmitis, lithojcylea, chrysitis, iota, lariciana, and occuliana. Desiderata, pupse of A. sinuata, and offers. — George Balding, Ruby Street, Wisbech. Wanted, Vol. H. of Science-Gossip, bound or in numbers, the latter preferred ; mounted micro slijies for polarizer, offered in exchange, or offers. — W. Wise, Chemist, Lancashire. Wanted, dragonflies, crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, ear- wigs and cockroaches. Offered, lepidoptera, shells, echino- derms, algee, &c. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham. To beginners. — I have about ico duplicates of British butter- flies, which I will distribute among the first half-dozen readers of Science-Gossip who will forward box and return postage before Feb. 15.— W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham. Twelve specimens of V, urticce, in papers, will be posted to any juvenile reader of Science-Gossip who will forward a stamped directed envelope. — W. Harcourt Bath, Ladywood, Birmingham. Quantity of minerals, &c., in exchange for volcanic, gem, or auriferous sand for micro slides ; also red crag fossils in exchange for common silurian ones. — A. G. H., 10 St. John's Hill, New Wandsworth, S.W. Shall be glad to exchange any of the following for clutches of many other species : clutches of American robin, sedge warbler, gold crest, great tit, jackdaw and magpie, reed bunting, tree and meadow pipit, skylark, nightjar, golden- winged woodpecker, moor hen and coot, lapwing, ringed plover, curlew, snipe, common and Arctic terns, sooty and Riippell's terns, kittiwake, common L. B. B. and G. B. B. gulls, great skua, little grebe, mute swan, and eggs of shel- drake, pheasant, partridge, hen harrier, Dartford warbler, water rail, dunlin, puffin, guillemot, ringed guillemot, razor bill, whimbrel, and stormy petrel. — Capt. Young, R.N., Rod- well, Weymouth. Wanted, microscopic or stereoscopic slides, in exchange for magic lantern, 2-in. condenser, with thirty slides. — H. Ebbage, 344 Caledonian Road, London. Wanted, stereoscope and slides ; exchange microscope and slides. — H. Ebbage, 344 Caledonian Road, London. For exchange, a collection of 400 micro slides (many pro- fessionally mounted), also pine cabinet to hold 288 slides. Wanted, Shaw's " Eclipse " photo apparatus, or other good detective camera, i-plate size, must be in good order. — W. A. Hyslop, 22 Palmerston Place, Edinburgh. Science-gossip for Feb. 1885 {No. 242) wanted, to make up volume. Will pay \s. for clean and complete copy, or send MoUer's test-slide [Gramtnatophora subtilissima) , dry, in ex- change.— M. Hafen, Ditton, Widoes, Lanes. Duplicates. — H. sericea, H. lapicida, H. pulchella, //. arbustonint, V. alpestris, and many others. Wanted, British land, freshwater and marine shells. — A. Hartley, 8 Cavendish Road, Idle, near Bradford, Yorkshire. Wanted, " Quarterly Journal Geo. Society," part containing paper on the "Thanet Sand," Prestwich, 1852; also part con- taining paper on "The Woolwich and Reading Beds," Prest- wich, 1854. — Geo. E. East, jun., 10 Basinghall Street, London, E.G. Wanted, whole insects in spirit, Brilish or foreign, also zoophytes ; all must be correctly named. Well-mounted micro objects or micro material offered in exchange. A well-preserved scorpion (recent), in first-rate condition ; open to any offer in any of the above, or other unmounted objects. List to — R. M., 24 Park Road, Clapham, London, S.W. Offered, L. C., 8th ed.: 5^, 9, 58, ddb, 100, 119, 126, 127, 17s, 178, 189, 197, 199, 207, 222, 234f, 249c, 251, 253, 256, 300, 357. 394'^. 439. 509^ 5 14'^. SU'. S14/. 5M^. S'4''. SM^. SM". S14A 515*. 526, 532a, 532*, 57si, 585, 601, 649, 650, 662, 712, 788, 795, 904, 917, 928^, 974, 995/!^, 1267, 1326, 1412, 1417, 1418, 1558, 1563, 1579, 1590, 1591, 1592, &c. &c. Lists requested. — F. C. King, Bank Villa, Fulwood, Preston. For exchange, first-class clutches of eggs from Asia Minor and North America, such a.s Egyptian vulture, osprey, bald eagle, kites, buzzards, hen and Montajus' harriers, lesser kestrel, hobby, mottled owl, roUeri, bee-eater, Barbary and red-legged partridges, Andalusian quails, com. quails, bustards, pratincoles, sooty and noddy terns, and others. Send lists of duplicates to — W. Raine, Walton Street, Toronto, Canada. Wanted in clutches, eggs of white-tailed eagle, peregrine falcon, kestrel, long-eared owl, short-eared owl, dipper, red- wing, gold crest, meadow pipit, skylark, cuckoo, golden plover. curlew, heron, kittiwake, oystercatcher, com. gull, stormy petrel, spoonbill, raven, red grouse, wood and purple sand- pipers, swan, ducks, and many others. Offered, several clutches of osprey, Pallas' sand-grouse, Bartram's sandpiper, Egyptian vultures, and over fifty other species collected in North America and Asia Minor. — W. Raine, Walton Street, Toronto. Science-Gossip for i8n5-68 (bound) ; 1875 (unbound) ; and Nos. 121, 177, 179: "Knowledge," parts 1-14 ; "Natural History Review," 1865. Wanted, "Entomologists," part?, — Aug., 1881, Oct.-Dec, 1881, Jan. -June, 1879 ; Science-Gossip, 1871 ; Lepidoptera, or micro material. — C. S. Bouttell, 7 Irene Road, Fulham. Wanted, standard works on zoology, comparative anatomy, microscopy (especially histology), &c. — Apply, stating require- ments, to F. R. Rowley, 60 Lower Hastings Street, Southfields, Leicester. Unaccepted offers not answered. Will exchange a collection of about 100 species of British b'rds' eggs, for botanical or microscopical books. — J. E. Nowers, 71 Branstone Road, Burton-on-Trent. For exchange, Science-Gossip, vols. 1865, i866, 1867, 1868, 1869, and 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877 (unbound), also 1870 (bound). — J. G., 26 Gt. Chatham Street West, Manchester. Wanted, Ped. cap., vestimenti, and pubis, and other parasites, in exchange for micro slides, or offers. — Fred Lee Carter, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Small duplicate collection of British land, freshwater, and marine shells, forty species, named, in exchange for micro slides, turntable, or offers. — J. B. Beckett, Trinity Place, Friar's Lane, Gt. Yarmouth. A Quantity of good micro slides in exchange for books, other slides, or offers. — A. Draper, Cemetery Road, Sheffield. British and Foreign algaa oflfered in exchange for others, Tasmanian, Australian, and S. American species especially desired. — E. M. Holmes, Bradbourne Dene, Sevenoaks, Kent. Marine algse, collected in Shetland and North Ireland, wanted in exchange for rare southern species. — E. M. Holmes, Bradbourne Dene, Sevenoaks. What offers for sea anemones and other specimens for sea- water aquarium ? Wanted, Science-Gossip numbers for November and December, 1881, also for years 1882 and 1883. — Walter Hollebon, Newark House, Langney Road, East- bourne. Wanted, last edition of Hobkirk's "Synopsis of Mosses," in exchange dried plants, mosses, birds (stuffed) or eggs. — J. A. Wheldon, High Ousegate, York. Wanted, good specimens of most of the British Grasses, in exchange for Botanical, or Pathological micro-slides (the diagnosis of the Pathological guaranteed). — B. Piffard, Hill House, Hemel Hempsted, Herts. Wanted, British stone implements in exchange for slides as above. — B Piffard, Hill House, Hemel Hempsted, Herts. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. "Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Eastern North America," by Chas. C. Abbot."— " The Antiquary."— "The Bookworm." — " Proceedings of Society of Amateur Geologists." — "Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Leicestershire," by Montague Browne, F. Z. S. — " Official Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland for 1887." — " Mineral Resources of the United States." — "Geo- logical History of Lake Lahouton," by J. C. Russell (Washington). " Pneumatics," by C. Tomlinson, 4th ed. (London: Crosby Lockwood & Co.).— "Book Ch.at."— "The Century Magazine." — " The Amateur Photographer." — " The Garner." — " The Naturalist." — " Cassell's Technical Edu'da- tor." " The Botanical Gazette."—" Belgravia."—" The Gentle- man's Magazine."—" American Monthly Microscopical Jour- nal."— "The Essex Naturalist." — "Wesley Naturalist," — "Journal of Conchology." — "The Midland Naturalist." — " Research in Life-Lore." — "Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes." — "The American Naturalist." — "Journal of Microscopy and Nat. Science." — "Canadian Entomologist." — "Ottawa Natu- alist." — "Victoria Naturalist." — " The Microscope." — Journal f Royal Society of New South Wales, &c. &c. Communications received up to the ioth E. B.— W. J. S.— I. T. D.— W. A. G.— M. P. C. J. B.— J. H. F.— R. S— T. W.— E. E. G.— T. A. J. H. C— Dr. C. C. A.— H. C. C— J. S.— J. G. T. R.— E. & Soil.— W. W.— J. G.— R. C— T. — W. S.— J. E. N.— B. P. M.— S. K. G— R. M.- F. E.— E. H. N.— J. W. W.— W. H. T.— H. L. J. E. L.— W. J. A.— R. M.— B. T.— W. M. W.- A. G. H.— M. H.— F. C. K.-A. H.— G. E. J. P. N.— W. A. H.— T. R.— G. B.— W. W.— H. — W. H. B.— Mrs. B.— T. S. K.— F. S. J. B. Y T. H. H.— A. B.— F. L. T.— W. H.— E. M. J. B. B.— F. L. C— J. G.— F. C— M. J.— J. E. F. R. R.— C. H. B.— A. C. T,— A. ]. J.-B. T.— ' F. H. H.— B. P., &c. &c. ult. from : ,— A. G. T.— D. A. C— M.— P. T.— S.— E. A. H. -A.J. N. S.— — F. C. L.— — W. A. L.— E.-J. C- E.— H. PM. .—J. S. W.— H.— A. D.— N.— C. E.— ■T. & B. K.— HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 49 LUNAR INFLUENCES. Bv A. W. BUCKLAND, Author of "The World Beyond the Esterelles," &c. &c., IMember of the Anthropological Institute, and Hon. Member of the Bath Lit. and Phil. Association. graph following para- from a con- temporary, has to do with certain lunar phenomena very little studied or understood, even by astronomers ; but which can hardly be ignored, in face of the persistent testi- mony of practical agriculturists in cli- mates differing from our own : " The influence of the moon upon vegetation is an interesting problem awaiting solution. A recent writer upon the subject mentions that wood- cutters in Cape Colony and in India insist that timber is full of sap, and unfit to be cut at full moon. Another ■observation of lunar influence in Cape Colony is the rapid spoiling of meats and other provisions when exposed to moonlight, though this may be due to the fact that the light serves as a guide to insects." * Before treating of these influences, which wq believe to be worthy of scientific enquiry and investi- gation, we will just glance at the numerous super- stitions still lingering among us in connection with the lesser light which rules the night, and see whether we can discover a few grains of reason in the apparent absurdities. When you first see the new moon you must courtesy, and turn your money for luck. It is unlucky to see the new moon through the window, or over your left shoulder. " If the new moon you see Neither through glass nor tree, It shall be a lucky moon to thee." * " Wit and Wisdom," Jan. 1S89. No. 291. — March 1889. A Saturday moon is always unlucky, for the weather will be bad during the ensuing month ; but to see the old moon in the lap of the new betokens fine weather. If the crescent moon lies on her back she holds the water in her lap ; but, if the horns are upright, the water will be poured out, and it will be a wet month. You should cut your hair in a waxing, and your nails in a waning moon. Herbs should be gathered when the moon is full, and you must kill your pig when the moon is waxing, or the meat will shrink in cooking. These are the principal superstitions relating to the moon, and they seem to fall naturally into three parts : the first of which may be traced to moon- worship, the second to the influence of the moon on the weather, and the third to the effect of moonlight upon plants and animals. The worship of the moon is probably as ancient as that of the sun. In most countries the sun held the first place, the moon being regarded as his consort ; but in some ancient religions the moon was regarded as the chief divinity, and was the male element, the sun becoming female. This metamorphosis is still to be traced in many languages, as in the German, but, either as brother and sister, or husband and wife, the sun and the moon have held sway over mortals from ihe earliest times to the present day. If we look to the attributes assigned to lunar deities, we shall find they are almost always associated with the chase ; thus the attributes of Artemis, the moon goddess of the Greeks, and of Diana, her representative among the Romans, are the bow and quiver, arrows or a spear, stags and dogs. We may, therefore, conclude that moon-worship originated among hunters, and that the horned divinities met with so frequently in ancient sculptures have some connection with the moon, the horns representing the cusps of the crescent moon. We find Assyrian and Egyptian goddesses thus adorned, and it would seem from various notices in the Bible, that the Hebrews were given to the use of "Round tires like the moon" (Isaiah iii. 18) as D so HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. head ornaments. It seems probable that these round tires may have resembled those golden ornaments found in Ireland and in ancient Etruria, and called lunula. It is certain that the Hebrews, like most Eastern nations, thought much more of the influence of the moon than we do in our colder clime. The new moon was ushered in by the blowing of the silver trumpets and by special sacrifices. But we search in vain in Eastern lands for any notices of superstitions connecting the moon with the weather, for it is only in a variable climate like our own that the weather is watched with solicitude, and it is by no means clear, notwithstanding the dictum of astronomers and philosophers, that in our sea-girt island the moon is wholly devoid of influence upon the weather ; for, when we consider that she regulates the tides, and that, at least on the sea-coast, the extremes of the tides certainly bring about atmos- pheric changes, these changes may truthfully be assigned to the primary cause, that is the moon. The extent of the change would, however, naturally depend greatly upon the direction of the wind and the degree of humidity of the atmosphere at the time, but we believe there is enough influence traceable to the moon to justify to some extent the weather prophecies of our ancestors. When, however, we turn to the influence of the moon upon plants and animals, we find the minimum effects in our cold, variable climate, and the maximum in hot countries under clear skies. Yet even here, perhaps, the moon may have more effect upon the growth of plants than we are willing to recognise ; and, as regards animal life, every keeper and atten- dant at a lunatic asylum knows how much the unhappy inmates are excited at full moon, and the bowlings of dogs on moonlight nights show that they too are affected in some way. It is, therefore, possible that there may be some truth in the old %vives' notion, that pigs should be killed when the moon is waxing. As regards the growth of hair, we cannot speak positively, but we have often noticed that the nails grow more rapidly when cut during the waxing period of the moon. These things are not superstitions, but may be proved or disproved by experiment, and it would seem to be worth while to test experimentally those lunar influences which modern philosophy is too ready to reject, simply because they were old-world beliefs. In the blessing accorded to the tribe of Joseph, through the mouth of Moses, we find especial mention of " The precious things put forth by the moon " (Deut. xxxiii, 14), and certainly, in hot. countries, it is well known that vegetation is largely dependent upon the moon. We have been told by planters in the West Indies that the growth of the sugar-cane during moonlight nights is twice as great as when there is no moon, as may be proved by the distance between the knots or divisions. The Chinese attach great importance to the influence of the moon, so timing the sowing of the seed as to ensure the greatest amount of moonlight for the springing corn. The appellation of "moon-struck" is, amongst us, a term of ridicule, but in hot countries it is a reality, and no one would think of sleeping unsheltered under the influence of the light of the full moon. A curious effect of the influence of the moon on animal matter is well known at the Cape of Good Hope. A favourite food among the colonists is a fish called siioek ( Thyrsitcs Atiin). This is not generally eaten fresh, but is cured in a particular way by the Malays. Now if this curing takes place during the time when the moon is at the full, and the light of the moon is allowed to- fall upon it when drying, all who partake of the fish thus cured, are seized with a swelling of the face, not particularly painful, but very disagreeable and dis- figuring, and the unhappy snoek-eaters wander about like so many grown children afflicted with mumps. From these few instances it will be seen that the influence of the moon is not altogether mythical, and further research may show that our ancestors were justified in attributing to the silver planet a share in controlling the forces of nature greater than will be admitted by modern philosophers ; and that, even in changes of weather, it is at least possible that the moon may have some influence, although only at new and full moons, when the tides are highest. That the weather should be affected by an eclipse, as many suppose, can scarcely be imagined, since an eclipse is only a passing shadow, and when we come to the absurdities of courtesying and turning money at new moon for luck, we see only the lingering survival of old customs and beliefs which, even in this century of enlightenment, cannot be wholly eradicated ; for in every human heart there still seems to be some little dark corner given up to superstition, and probably even now, as related by Aubrey (1678), some of our English country women may be found to sit astride on a gate or stile the first evening the new moon appears, saying, "A fine moon, God bless her I " A PEEP AT THE ROMAN WALL. By the Rev. HiLDERic FRIEND, F.L.S. THE quiet little town of Haltwhistle, on the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway, is a capital point from which to start for a peep at this interesting relic of former times. It is curious to notice how peaceful everything now is, where, centuries ago, all was life and bustle. It is fascinating to try and recall the appearance of the skilled masons trimming the blocks of whinstone and placing them in position along the crest of the hills, or in the secluded valleys along which the wall was built, and when we see how sharply the stones were faced, and then visit the quarry in which the very same stone is blasted and squared to-day for paving our cities, we wonder at HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P. 51 the little progress which has been made in this branch of labour during the centuries that have gone into the historic past. If we leave Haltwhistle on a bright, crisp morning, full of vigour and ready for an exciting tramp, a very pleasant day lies before us. After a brief glance at the town — which is not so interesting as some others in the neighbourhood, either historically or artistically — we strike away to the north-west, and after a brisk walk, come to valleys, ravines, streams, quarries, and mines of exceptional attractiveness for the student of natural history. In the streams and pools, the fresh- water plants and shells abound, and not a few are far from common. While every bank, nook, and cranny is bedecked with moss, and lichen, and fern, the quarries present many features of interest. Coal, clay, sandstone, are all in close proximity, and each invites our attention. Worm-tracks, striking ripple- marks and rain-drops abound in the latter, which varies greatly in texture and colour, and often contains a good deal of mica and other minerals. The streams too, especially where unpolluted by mining operations, prove attractive to geologist as well as botanist, for they have many a story to tell of obstacles presented to their course, and conquests won over boulders of many kinds, which now repose in the rugged water-course like subdued and vanquished heroes. Such wayside studies as these beguile the time and make it pass all too quickly, and we find by our watches that it is necessary to hasten on. We there- fore strike for a farm-house and hamlet known as Wall-town, and having reached the heights to the north, find ourselves on the very ridge along which the wall was constructed. Like the Great Wall of China, this lesser structure ran up and down, in and out, following the course of stream and cliff which aided the work of defence. Here we find ourselves actually on the wall itself, and now for miles in either direction we can trace its rise and fall (in more senses than one), and study many points in connection with its history. We soon observe that the line of hills which run along from west to east are of an eruptive formation, the rocks standing out here and there in such a way that when a small portion is dislodged with the geological hammer, its green tint and volcanic origin may be seen at a glance. This is the stone, here always known as "whinstone," when 171 sitti ; " cobbles," when found in river bed or amongst gravel, and generally known as "basalt" elsewhere. This is the stone which the Roman workmen quarried with such patience and skill for the construction of the wall throughout this part of the district. Here and there we find sandstone blocks intermingled, and the rubble which fills up the middle portion is perhaps as often of sandstone as of basaltic origin, but, as a whole, thousands upon thousands of whin- stone blocks, all square-cut and beautifully laid, form the northern and principal face of this historic pile. We take the westerly direction for convenience, and because there are two special points of interest to study, and wend our way along the top of the wall, or by its side, now admiring the pretty patches of Lecidea covering the more exposed rocks and stones of l)asalt, now culling a pretty fern or fruiting moss, and anon fishing out a banded Helix or other thing of beauty, till at last we alight on one of the stone turrets or watch towers, which stood about three hundred yards apart, and thus enabled the sentinel to keep up communication all along the wall. These towers are twelve feet square, and as several of them have been cleaned out, they have told their own story of the past. At Greenhead we shall have an opportunity of seeing one of these in the process of being opened, but let us first step aside for a moment to ascertain whence comes the chink, chink, which we hear. Yonder, some hundred feet below us there are workmen busy with pick, and shovel, and hammer. They are quarrying whinstone, and the ridge along which we are walking is gradually receding before them. We look at the top of the works, and are amazed at the way in which the basalt has been weathered, then carefully descend into the workings beneath. What a splendid sight ! That bold face of bluish-green rock has a wonderful tale to tell. It was once a super-heated mass which could not contain itself within the narrow bounds imposed by cold, unbending rocks, and with one mighty effort tore asunder the chains which bound it and poured out its fury on the quivering earth-crust to cool in due course and set into this solid mass ! Here, guided by an intelligent Welsh quarryman, we see the very sandstone over ! which the lava flowed, and it is curious to observe how both the sandstone and basalt have been affected by the action. The stone quarried here varies in texture at different heights, from which we infer that the coarser, denser particles by their specific gravity subsided to the bottom while the mass was still mobile and liquid, the finer particles floating nearest the surface. We have never visited a quarry which produced upon us a profounder impression than this one has done. And now for a run to Carvoran which is nigh at hand, and we shall see the quarter-miie turret which has just been opened. It stands off the main road — the Maiden Way, perhaps, of the Romans — and is near a farm-house. Among the " finds " there are sundry pieces of pottery, some iron articles, bones of different kinds, the jaw of a carnivorous brute, whose teeth have been greatly worn down by the constant crushing of bones, and sundry pieces of horn which have evidently been employed in various ways. We are now within a short distance of Greenhead Station, whence we can take train to Carlisle or Newcastle or if we prefer, can run on to the pretty resort at Gilsland and after a night's rest, a drink at the Spa, and sundry pilgrimages, find our way to Birdoswald where one of the most complete stations on the D 2 52 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Roman Wall may be seen. We have had but a peep, and that peep has made us anxious to see more. If we cannot satisfy our desires we may procure the veteran Dr. Bruce's work on this subject and study it at our leisure. Now let us away for a wash and a cup of tea to refresh us after our ramble. A CHAPTER ON DEGENERATION. THERE are certain animals which, beginning life well, gradually lose their characters, become parasitic, or attached to some object, their senses become aborted, their limbs useless, and only the functions of digestion and reproduction are performed with their primary vigour. Green-house plants are often troubled with a little pest called the Scale. It is found as a small brown or yellow scale on the leaves and stems of divided into segments, each segment bearing a short blunt process on each side. The eyes are small, and situated on each side of the flat round head. It has short, somewhat hairy antennae, and six short legs. Two straight blunt appendages project from the hinder end of the body. In most of these points, as will be seen later, the mealy bug resembles the young of the scale, but it is much fatter, rounder and. covered with meal. If it is disturbed, it may take a step or two, but its nature is very slugg ish, and it seems quite contented to remain in one spot, busily fattening itself. Both the mealy bug and the scale, are female cocci, the males of which are furnished with wings. The particular scale which I examined, attacks the Abulilon trees in our green-house, and both it and the mealy bug do considerable damage. It is a small oval, yellow or brown in colour, and varies in length- from one-sixth of an inch _ to a size barely visible ta Fig. 15. — Scale on Leaf. Fig. 26. — (A; Inside of Scale, showing Young. Fig. 27. — (b) Young, much, magnified. plants ; sometimes in great quantities, and, as jt spreads (juickly, frequently causes considerable damage. If an old brown scale be lifted from the surface of the plant, minute red bodies, just visible to the unaided eye, are found underneath it. These are the young, while the scale which protects them is a degenerated female insect which lives upon the sap of the plant, and reproduces its young in this manner. The scale insect, then, is a good example of degeneration. The mealy bug, which attacks green-house plants in the same manner, is closely related to the scale, although it does not undergo so complete a degenera- tion. It is about the same size (about one-sixth of an inch), and has very much the same manner, of life. It is round in shape, of a reddish colour, and covered all over with a white mealy substance. Its body is the naked eye. It is best examined by opaque light with 1-3 in. objective, either on the leaf or on a slide. The young are seen by taking an old scale of the leaf and laying it, lower surface upwards, on a slide. It will then be seen that the scale is more hollowed out in one part where it is black or dark in colour, and that here four or five young cocci are ensconced. They usually present very obvious signs of vitality, and walk all over their shield, evidently unaccustomed to the light of day suddenly brought to bear on them. Their bodies are oval in shape and very flat, with two bright eyes and two long hair-like curved caudal appendages. They have six legs, and two hairy antenna;, which are used as feelers, when they walk about. Their body is divided into several narrow segments, which are elevated into a slight ridge in the middle line. In appearance they some- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 53 what resemble the mealy bug to which they are near relatives. In spite of the fact that later in life they :are very inactive, at this early period they walk freely about and thus it is that the scales are found at sonie distance from each other. Very soon the young coccus settles down and begins to degenerate. By very little care you may find scales no larger than these young. At this stage, they are slightly red in colour, and preserve more the appearance of the young than they do later : the eyes are still distinct ; the segments are more clearly marked off from ■one another, the caudal appendages are still present, and the general shape of the body is only slightly convex. As the scale gets older, it becomes larger, anore convex and more scale-like. Sometimes the Tjack is marked with a few black lines which give it a somewhat tortoiseshell appearance. It is at first yellowish-green, then as the markings get stronger it turns brown. Even at this late stage, traces of its former condition may be seen. Thus you usually find at the posterior end a well-marked indentation, and this marks the interval between the two projecting angles of the last segment near the root of the caudal appendages. The eyes, which are very indistinct, and the useless legs and antennc'c can still be seen. The body is very thin, except — if the specimen be not too old — near the middle line where it is sac-like, and contains the young in an embryonic condition. In short, the scale is now a degenerate organism, motionless, feeding, increasing in bulk so that it may develop young, and form a shield over them for their protection. The useless organs — that is the ■organs not concerned in this task — have shrivelled away, and the structure has modified itsell to suit this purpose. This is a very interesting object for microscopic study, and may be easily possessed by those who have access to a green-house. Besides the species here described, there are others common in green- houses which attack different plants. Bernard Thomas. ON SOME ADDITIONAL ACCESSORIES TO THE MICROSCOPE. By Thomas H. Holland, A.N.S.S. IN an examination by reflected light of such ob- jects as sand-grains and small crystals, it is -desirable, sometimes, to investigate the characters of ■surface-markings, such as etch-figures, oscillatory combinations of two distinct crystalline forms, or other external peculiarities of minerals. Again, the great numbers in which the remains of small and low forms of life are found in the fossil state, adds to the importance of their accurate determination by the palaeontologist. In studying specimens of, say, foraminifera, bryozoa, or small brachiopoda, it is necessary to turn the individual about in all sorts of manners to examine the appearances presented on all sides. Now, one of the chief difficulties in dealing with such small specimens, whether of minerals or of fossils, is to find a convenient method of handling the object, whilst subjecting it to a microscopic examination. In holding the object in the hand, from the way in which one's hand persists in going in the wrong direction when one's attention is occupied with the specimen, it is more a test of patience than a process attended with satisfactory results. The absurdly simple contrivance described below, may, to a large extent, obviate this difficulty. A sphere of wood, ivory, cork, or other suitable vA\ \'\\\\'v\\'\ "\\\\\\\\\\V \ Fig. 23. material of about \ in. diameter, is divided into two along the plane of a great circle. Each half is available for use, and out of each, a concentric hollow hemisphere, of less than f in, diameter, is Fig. 29. turned as shown in Fig. 29. By using a small piece of wax, the specimen to be examined may be so mounted that it is, as nearly as possible, coincident with the centre of the hemisphere, which can be placed, as shown in Fig. 28, over the central circular aperture of the microscope-stage. Seeing the edge of this hole touches the hemisphere in a circle of co'nstant diameter, equal circular sections of the sphere are always cut off, no matter to what angle the plane of the great circle of the hemisphere be tilted. The circle, therefore, is always the same distance from the centre of the sphere, consequently, any object, mounted centrally, always remains at the [Continued on page 56.) E o Q tn I" S • 2 ^ rS a « "-E-i c« 00 T:i CO ri i-i X) 4= .s ^ »J ' J ^^ ^ ^ >- t- - So ci o i;4^ >-. u. ^ O --, c o ^ i: — I I- fl cq >~>h rt o C i^ a, c o OJ o c o >. ' 43 G I-' O o w ^ o - T-f 43 u ^: '43 O *" §-^ -St o " en ^*-. O rt -4; S3 >> > rt g y JJ CD ci o O N .S ^ 1> 2B w d in W O m o 03 Q o ft O 43: c o o ^ o cS > S K o t/] ->« O o o 4) s c C 5 .2 f^-^ ^§ o o (U O _^ tn u M tn ^ u cJ O ^« !3 dj ci 43: P " - ^ > S S 43 M C ■" -^ S ^ %iP ^43 >»jn <0 O O t^ cj U r'^ -^ "" — ^fePn 13 -^ O - : ti^^oO M pq ^:^ CiO • ■*— ' o ■- == 2 o i tn-B 1) O S 3 O -1 CO '-/^ " -"-S - -i:!^ o o o _: ■ o ci oj J}: ^ >> O ■7^ ci P3 p d rt C ^ d C O • +-» c "t; S o •=• o 2 O u c o C o ,-: t/> lU f-rl ■ c .e; ^ - ■a c rt 5 ci s 2 2 d E ri . r ■, . ^ in Soo^ d w ■^ X (u -r; ^ - tn QJ r . ^ — , qj - rt (U - ^ o (U o cpq o o 5 CO -Si >> O :=; o O g w -^ --^ y^ .-H tu C/3 0) - o Ji 1^ ^ -*-' ^. 0) in p. s ^ o H 1 '5 '^^ in o o- o-o^-s o . o .^ o Ph J^.jq c ?^ W5 rt _g M o -9 o rt C! irt *-• -^ ^ ta -° f/: ^ (i> 8,^ o 5 I 01 " o .-2 c in .3 O II •- ^-^ ci o o O m .5 ^ o 0) p o ci o U o CO .J3 O) 1) " 0) o w "3 «j 0,^0 \^ .Z^ G in CO Siog f2 O 4) in c a, rt p s2 ^ OJ 5: o CM a; ^ o < b t;^ ^-^ ci K o c -a n cj tH to aj H • o . c "^^ >, w fl o ci ■en c! CA! p O S <1 o i=i . o ci 8' Cfi CJ 1) ^3 C :::5 ci ci Ji o 71 p-9 M^ t/) ci O U o Q o o Q Q Oh c 3 CO 'a; C ci O rt O S- ci -p Cj ffif f f o "^ H-rt - o ci . O ' o tjO o ci rt ;3 -o ii o CO • <^ • t-H o • o 8 • • ■ii o o ■rt- hH »-o o ro 'J- n- fCT o 00 ro ■ i-i iri - - '^^ H-i t^ lO 00 00 "-" to w PO , ^ , , K ^ , • , , • , • ^ OJ o > m tn •^ bfl ci o t>^ b/) .— 1 o rt O ■ . b/} O rt o b/) o ■4-* rt O h(-1 rt o ci O 1^ rt O O bn ^ 0) rt O H CJ CJ 1) OJ o D 4) 1) (U > > > > >• >• >■ o «^ "in ^ • o J2 O a, C/3 en -4-1 o CJ Q 1-1 r^ rt w 15 U ■CO ;? CJ CO ON r~» o lr> a^ 00 >j^ o O "-> 10 "^ ^ • • • • • ^ 1^ ^ u^ t^ 1-^ N oo 00 00 • • ■ • • CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO 00 »H hH HH HH "^ '^ I.N t-i " HH l-l 56 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. same distance above the stage, and hence never moves out oi focus. And, because, in every sphere, a horizontal circle has always a vertical axis, the centre of the sphere must be vertically above the centre of the circular aperture of the stage ; hence, no amount of rotation of the hemisphere can move the object out o'i field. The specimen, then, can be turned about in all sorts of ways, without the faintest chance of the observer being inconvenienced by its shifting, either out of field or focus, and, at the same time, permitting the use of objectives of fairly hij;h powers. By turning out a conical hole of the size and shape shown in Fig. 28, this simple contrivance may be employed in transmitted light, for adjusting sections of crystals, which are supposed to have been cut in any particular direction; but, which, as is almost always the case, only approximate what they are represented to be. Suppose, for example, a section of a doubly refracting, uniaxial crystal is required, normal to the optic axis. Then, by em- ploying the hemisphere, the section can be so adjusted that its optic axis is exactly parallel to the line of collimation of the instrument. Another simple addition I have found useful in the examination of imperfectly transparent mineral fragments. It consists of a hollow cone of blackened cardboard, made somewhat after the style of a Bunsen cone. The cone may be so placed that its wider end rests upon, and is concentric with, the stage of the microscope ; whilst its narrower end above, loosely encircles the objective and allows of a limited amount of focussing down. Thus the stage with the cone may be freely and uninterruptedly revolved, and, at the same time, every trace of reflected light cut off. This appliance, which can be made of varying sizes to suit the various objectives employed, is especially useful in examining well-worn sand- grains of, for example, some pleochroic mineral, when it is obviously essential to be rid of all re- flected light, seeing reflected light, would, in any case, be prejudicial to a correct observation of pleo- chroism, and in some cases, where the specimen is but imperfectly translucent, be sufficient to com- pletely eclipse tlie very feeble amount of transmitted light. N'orinal School nf Science, SoiilJi Kensington. ABNORMAL GROWTHS ON FOREST- TREES, The Beech Knot. AMONG the many curious and abnormal growths which are found on branch, root, and stem of our forest trees, the above, the beech knot, is among the many curious and interesting. 1 have of late, and on previous occasions, observed in some journals and papers a short notice of the above growths, attributing their origin to fungus^ insects, accident, and such like. I have recently collected many specimens of the above abnormal growths and other tree excrescences and diseases. I have made a close study of them in many woods on many large trees, on various extensive properties where I have been engaged. They are not previously treated nor illustrated in any journal, as far as I am aware ; after a careful study of them, I shall, with thehelp of the following illustrations, try and interpret, in an intelligible way, what I consider to be the cause of their origin and after-development. I have termed them the Beech Knot, because they are most numerously found upon that tree ; but we find them common upon the oak, ash, elm^ alder, chestnut, holly, evergreen oak. They are not due to insects, fungus, nor accident ; but are perfectly natural. Neither may they be taken as an indicatiorr of health nor disease, nor are they in any way attributable to any particular soil or situation. They are perfectly numerous on some trees ; on others comparatively rare ; some die off early and rarely attain the size of a pigeon's egg, while I have found some really large and remarkable specimens. How are they caused, is the main inquiry, and particularly, how do they grow ? In the barks of our forest trees are contained a multitude of latent buds which are developed and grow under certain favour- able conditions. Some trees possess this property in a remarkable degree, and often when the other parts are killed down by frost in severe winters, this property of pushing out these latent buds into growth, often preserves the life of the plant. HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. 57 These buds having once begun to grow adhere to the woody layer at their base, and push out their point through the bark towards the hght. The buds then un- fold and develop leaves, which elaborate the sap carried up the small shoot. Once elaborated, it descends by the bark, when it reaches the base or inner bark. Here it is arrested, so to speak, and deposited between the outside and inner layer of bark, as can be observed for the future layer of woody matter, if the base is not firmly connected, it is liable to be pushed out, and lose its connection inwardly. Then the knot may be said to be now entirely between the inner and outer bark ; with a knot of woody matter ; or, the woody layers and leaves. In those knots that retain their hold at the base they are very liable to be enclosed in the future Fig. 31. Fig. 3^. Fig. 40. Fig. 32. Fig. 33- Fig. 37- Fig. 38. Fig. 39- Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43 on examining specimens on trees in the wood almost anywhere. Then this growth, as we shall see, is due to a defective circulation, because in these trees such as the ash, sycamore, and oak, where the shoots are more vigorous and strong, there are fewer knots found, because the strong growth of the shoot causes a better circulation. First, we note the bark of the silver fir, and the base of the branch where it originally sprang from. Observe this is of importance, for when the bark is expanding layers of woody matter, where they are found on sawing up timber. The knot may be said to have passed its first stage and is represented at Fig. 32, and, as we have observed, is first due to the buds and small shoots springing out of the bark. They are also fed by the leaves which they develop, as they generally lose their leaves about the second and third year. The shoots also dying back (see Figs. 33, 34, 35. 36, 37, 38, 39, 40). Then how do they grow and attain a large growth, seeing that they are deprived both inwardly and outwardly of any visible means of 58 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. obtaining and manufacturing nourishment for their support ? I have shown in a former paper, how a root of a tree can grow and form layers of woody matter after being deprived of any visible means of obtaining nourishment. We have observed how the knot is formed. Once deprived of all visible means of ob- taining matter by leaves of its own, it is fed by the bark, and will live and increase yearly in size, adding additional layers of woody matter, hence its growth, and will live and increase in size in this manner as long as the bark supplies it with matter. These growths are many times irregular and curiously twisted. The layers of woody matter when cut up and polished, present a beautiful surface. I have examined several hundreds of these knots of all ages and stages of growth. I have found at least the half of them have no connection inwardly, they have lost connection (see Fig. 43). They are seated between the bark, and are most easily knocked off the tree. At this stage any one can take a knife and pick out the inner bark which is between the knot and the layer of wood, and see this for himself. Among the various forms to be found, these (see Figs. 34, 37, 40) are the forms most likely to live longest. These (38, 39), from their neck-hke con- nection, are more likely to die off earlier, because the sap, when descending down the stem, does not circulate so freely around the knot as these others which have a closer and better connection. It must not be supposed that all knots lose the shoots. I have found several instances (see Fig. 41), where both branch and knot continued growing. In time, the knot would be enclosed in the growth of the branch. On some trees, for instance, the Cryplomeria, I have found knots of woody matter, not caused in the same way as these described, but due to branches which impede the sap and cause the bark to rise in folds, so to speak, which form knots of woody matter at such parts where there is a stagnation of sap and impediment to the free enlargement of the bark. The Scotch pines, both those of a moderate and those of a larger size, are liable to curious knots. I had often wished for some trees to be cut so that I could get them dissected and examined. Latterly, by the effects of the great gales, this opportunity did come. I found that these growths (Fig. 30) were due to broken and pruned branches, particularly if two or three were quite close together. This caused a stagna- tion and irregular deposit of woody matter, at those parts which caused these curious growths. I have found some very large and remarkable examples of these growths. The larch is not very guilty of such growths. I have found many instances of them. After inves- tigating them, I found them due to broken and to pruned branches, which caused an irregular growth of the bark overlapping, so to speak, resulting in an irregular growth of the bark. The arrows in each figure, mark the course of the ascending and descending sap, Robert Coupar. Ashjord Castle, co. Gahvay. COLOUR DEVELOPMENT IN LEAVES AND FLOWERS. WITH regard to my quotations from Hermann Miiller as to the visits of bees to the poppy and two periwinkles, Mr. Bulman cautions me that the absolute number of visits, not the number of species observed on the flowers, is the important point. This, of course, is quite true, but there is nothing to show that in the cases mentioned, the distribution of the total number of visits was not roughly proportional to the number of species ; indeed, Muller's remarks seem to indicate that this was so. Mr. Bulman's own observations on the comparative number of insect visits to the chickweed and Veronica Biixbaicniii, growing in the same garden, are interesting, and with his other observations certainly seem to tell against the theory. I do not, however, feel justified in giving up the theory of the production of blue flowers by the selective action of bees merely on the strength of these experiments, which are possibly capable of being explained away on a further knowledge of the con- ditions. With regard to Sir John Lubbock's experi- ments, the interpretation seems plain enough, that bees, from whatever cause, prefer blue to other colours, and as to the inconsistency with " observed facts," I must say that this is, in my opinion, far too comprehensive a phrase to apply to a difference of result arrived at by Mr. Bulman. At least, I hope, it is clear that the experiments upon which Sir John's opinion is founded are not a matter of "teaching" bees " to take honey off different colours" ! Mr. Bulman says that "it is hardly possible to be otherwise than dogmatic " upon questions touching " advanced " flowers. This may be so, but he imme- diately afterwards goes on to speak of the ' ' lowly mark of symmetry," tic, and as he has ventured on to this dangerous ground, I must, in justice to the theory in question, follow him. To take first, then, his instances of highly developed flowers which are not blue. Mr. Grant Allen considers that the Orchid- acea; "have mostly got beyond the monochromatic stage altogether." As to the Boraginacece, I cannot consider them at all a primitive type, though they do possess "the lowly mark of symmetry." Their honey-concealing tubes, the various appendages to the corolla for excluding " unbidden guests," and other contrivances for • ensuring cross-fertilisation, surely mark thern out as highly developed. These are among the characteristics usually considered to constitute an organism "advanced" — increasing HARD WICKE ' S S CJENCE- G O SSI P. 59 complexity of structure adapted to more perfect exercise of function : and because it is in some cases difficult to judge organisms correctly by this standard, that is surely no reason for giving up the word when there can be no doubt as to what it indicates. The Campanulas, again, though regular as to the shape of their flowers, may well be considered an advanced type, taking into account the adaptation of the bell- like form to the visits of humble-bees, the honey protected from many insects, the well-marked pro- terandry and subordinate contrivance for cross-fer- tilisation : the same may in part be said of the Scillas, As to the position of the Veronicas among the Scro- phulariacccc, a few words of Midler's throw^ some light on the question : " In spite of its apparently simple flower, Veronica is by no means a primitive genus among the Scroiohularinece ; the symmetrical flower, the specially differentiated nectary, the reduc- tion of the sepals and petals to four, and of the stamens to two, are all characters widely removed from the primitive type. The short-tubed species of Veronica must be looked upon as the more primitive, from which the long-tubed type of V, spicata has been evolved by the agency of bees and sand-wasps." The yellow iris is, I take it, a special case not yet under- stood ; similar cases are ably discussed in the chapter on " Retrogression " in Mr. Grant Allen's " Colours of Flowers." From this I will quote the " hypothetical explanation " of the colours of the Ligulata;, Mr. Bul- man's last instance : " The primitive ancestral composite had reached the stage of blue or purple flowers while it was still at a level of development corresponding to that of the Scabious or the Jasione. The universality of such colours among the closely allied Dipsaceae, Valerianeae, Lobeliacese and Campanulacese, adds strength to this supposition. The central and most primitive group of Composites, the Cynaroids, has kept up the original colouration to the present day ; it includes most of the largest forms, such as the artichoke, and it depends most of any for fertilisation upon the higher insects. Very few of its members have very small florets. All our British species (except the degenerate Carlina) are purple, sometimes reverting to pale pink or white, while Centaiirea Cyaniis, our most advanced representative of the tribe, rises even to bright blue. Next to the Cynaroids in order of development come the Corymbifers, some of which have begun to develope outer ligulate rays. Here the least evolved type, Eupatorium, with few and relatively large florets, is usually purple or white, never yellow. But as the florets grew smaller, and began to bid for the favour of many miscellaneous small insects, reversion to yellow became general. . . . The Ligulates were again developed from yellow-rayed Corymbifers by the conversion of all the disk florets into rays. Ap- pealing for the most part to very large and varied classes of miscellaneous insects, they have usually kept their yellow colour ; but in a few cases a fresh progressive development has been set up, producing the violet -blue or purple florets of the salsify [Tragopogon porrifolius), the deep blue Sonchus Alpinus, and the bright mauve succory, Cichorium Intybiis." Mr. Bulman says that he is not at all satisfied that M tiller intends in the words quoted by me about the appearance of red, violet and blue in flowers to assert that the most advanced flowers are usually of these colours. As Midler does not categorically state this, it is rather difficult, in the face of Mr. Bulraan's warning about the use of the word "advanced," to show it. The general conception of the meaning of the word is, however, I believe, what I have in- dicated above ; and there is no doubt that generally speaking " flowers whose honey is quite concealed and which are visited by more or less long-tongued insects " have undergone various and extensive adaptations of structure which fit them for, the more perfect discharge of the function of fertilisation by means of these insects. The blue colour in Hepatica and Verbasctim is to be explained as developed by the SyrphidiE, to which the flowers are adapted and which admire bright colours, being themselves brightly adorned, as the result of sexual selection. (Mlille'r). It is certainly rather startling to be told that a statement of Midler's in his " Befruchtung," " com- pletely annihilates the whole Darwinian theory of the development of flowers by the selective agency of insects," when we consider that Miiller seeks all through the book in question to explain the whole of the structures met with in flowers as the result of natural selection acting through insect agency. The fact is that Mr. Bulman has, not exactly misquoted, but given the wrong context to Miiller's statement, which really runs : "that in general antJiophilous insects are not r(7«yf«^^ by hereditary instinct to certain flowers, &c." (the italics are my own) ; while Mr. Bulman's version of it is " bees are not confined,' '&c., which is a very different matter. Keeping the italicised words in mind, we see that Mr. Bulman's argument about the " complete annihilation " of the Darwinian theory falls to pieces ; for the phrase " anthophilous insects in general" is not synonymous with "bees," and to say that they are not " confined " to certain flowers by hereditary instinct is not at all the same thing as to say that they have no hereditary pre- ference for certain flowers ; yet this is the conclusion which Mr. Bulman has drawn. To enforce this obvious difference we have only to read another statement of Midler's: "The most specialised, and especially the gregarious bees have produced great diff'erentiations in colour, which enable them, on their journeys, to keep to a single species of flower." I am afraid, therefore, that I cannot agree with Mr. Bulman that Miiller's conclusions on this point would have been more in place in his paper than in mine. 6o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Mr. Bulman then goes on to say, that he " cannot make out from what premises " my " remarkable conclusion " on the evolution of red and blue in flowers is drawn. Now it is quite obvious that the passage alluded to is not a "conclusion" in the logical sense at all ; I should have thought, indeed, that it was perfectly clear that I had not attempted, and could not possibly have attempted in a paper of the length of mine, any arguments upon which such a conclusion could be based ; but that I had simply pointed out the results obtained by two representative men on the subject, and indicated, in the passage referred to, their common conclusions. If, therefore, Mr. Bulman looked for " premises," it is not wonderful that he could not find them. I am very sorry that Mr. Bulman finds it "an inscrutable mystery" how the facts and arguments of my paper are supposed to oppose his views. I am afraid that to convince him on this point is a task to which I am quite unequal, but I may remark here that, supposing it to be so, it is curious that he should think it necessary to write nearly nine columns, pre- sumably with the object of refuting them. As to Mr. Bulman's argument about the distrust of red which bees would acquire from visiting reddish buds and faded flowers, it seems to me that is based on an altogether unjustifiable assumption, viz. that bees, the representatives of one of the longest lines of descent among anthophilous insects, are so un- intelligent as not to know the difference between a faded flower or a bud and a flower in its prime. Mr. Grant Allen does consider the chemical process in the faded flower analogous to that taking place at the appearance of variations, but it is surely clear that the new colours could not be evolved from colours appearing after fertilisation. In conclusion, I must submit that Mr. Bulman has not made good his charges against the theoiy of colour development through iiisect selection ; he has, I think, in the course of his attacks, revealed several points where our knowledge is not sufficient to enable us to speak authoritatively, but though there are very likely some details, such as, for instance, the sup- posed strict sequence of colour-development put forward by Mr.' Grant Allen, which will have to be modified later, the general principle of the theory remains untouched. Apart from the « //wr« argu- ment derivable from the theory of natural selection, the hypothesis must, of course, to have a firm basis, be established by the inductive method, and I do not think that, at present, the evidence is sufficient to establish it as a great scientific generalisation, though it has gone far in that direction. As Mr. Darwin said of his own great induction, of which this theory is but a comparatively insignificant branch, it must at present find its support chiefly from "connecting under an intelligible point of view a host of facts." A. G. Tansi.ey. PARASITES OF THE WHITE ANT (BENGAL). By W. J. Simmons. THE depredations of the white ant in India have earned for it the hearty dislike of all classes of the community. Its reputation is so distinctly and exclusively evil that mischief is sometimes attributed Fig. 45. Parasite No. i. The Figs, show the mouth — parts, ciliation, nucleus, and ingested particles of food. In Fig. 44, Tricho- cysts are observable. to the poor insect which it could not by any possi- bility perpetrate. The story goes that the native record-keeper of a Mofussil Court, being unable to HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, 6i produce certain valuable documents, defended him- self by solemnly declaring that their mysterious dis- appearance was due to white ants, which had not faction to many out here to learn that our termite does not get off scot-free ; but that the relentless destroyer of books, clothes, furniture, papers, grain, 1 ig- 47- Fi^. 46. Fi^'. jo. Fig. 49. Fig. 5£. Fi,'. 53. \> Vh 54- Fig. 55- 49 and 50. — Views of a form of nioutli- Figs. 46 to 54. — Specimens in which the hyaline cap is replaced by a hyaline sphere. Figs. ,, ^-. r u parts dift"erin< slightly from those observable in Figs. 44 and 45. Fig. 49 is focussed for the siirlace, and Hg. 50 'or }"<= con- stricted interior of the " pharyngeal tube." Figs. 49 to 53.— Views of the Parasite in various amceba-hke forms : ingested food-particles occupy the posterior portions of the infusorians delineated. Fig. 55.— Ruptured cuticle of parasite flattened out, as seen with Seibert's ,'-th water immersion. only devoured the missing papers, but had entirely demolished the very iron safe wherein they had been deposited ! It is, therefore, a source of quiet satis- and even garden-plants, is himself victimised by parasites. The readers of your Journal in other parts of the world may also be interested in a short 62 HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. notice of work on the Infusoria which I have found in the intestinal canal of white ants in Calcutta. These parasites are referable to the order Holo- Iricha. They appear to differ specifically from the Infusorians, also Holotrichous, drawings of which from Professor Leidy's paper on the Parasites of the Termites, are reproduced in Plate xxviii. of Mr. Kent's "Manual of the Infusoria." The changes of form in the Bengal species are almost as Protean as in the Amoeba (Figs. 49 to 52 and 53). The animal- cule, which for want of a name I shall designate Parasite No. I, is a strong and a rapid swimmer ; in these respects its movements are suggestive of the Paramgecia (Figs. 44, 45, 46). The measurements of four of average size, taken after death, were as follows : (a) length ^", breadth .^" ; [b) length ^,-,", breadth ^fik " ; (^) length ^ij ". breadth .^g " ; [d) length ^jjg ", breadth jlg". The cilia at the anterior extremity are directed forwards, and being longer than those distributed over the body, they form a ciliary collar around what I take to be the mouth- parts of the organism. In some cases the cilia at the posterior extremity are slightly elongated, and form a more or less conical tuft ; but in respect of length they do not approach the cilia of the collar. The body frequently shows parallel spiral markings, which may indicate the position of the cilia, or a ridged surface. I have observed what I take to be tricho- cysts in a few cases (Fig. 44), though I doubt if these are constantly present in the cortical layer of the parasite. There is a distinct and large nucleus, of circular form ; but I have not yet detected any con- tractile vesicle, a feature this organism shares in common with the genera Trichonympha and Pyrso- nema of Leidy. The body is generally gorged with food, identical in appearance with the contents of the alimentary canal of the termites in which the parasites occur. They appear, therefore, to live directly on the semi-digested food-contents of the intestine of their host. No one who has once examined the living active mass which inhabits the white ant will be surprised at the voracious appetite of that destructive insect ! I have spoken of the " mouth-parts " of the organism, by which I mean an external hyaline cap, surmounting a narrow tube, perhaps pharyngeal, which is in most cases prominently located at the anterior extremity, and fringed by the ciliary collar (Figs. 49 and 50). It does not occur in all the para- sites I have had under observation, and, moreover, in some instances the cap is replaced by a minute hyaline sphere (Figs. 46 and 54). The tube which I refer to as being probably pharyn- geal is constricted in the middle. In favourable positions it can be "worked down" through the hyaline cap (Figs. 49, 51), and it then resembles an oral opening. Such of the parasites illustrated in Professor Leidy's paper as have been reproduced in Kent's work have no mouth-parts resembling those observable in the animalcula which infested a large proportion of the white ants I examined ; and there are other differences. I nevertheless express myself provisionally as to these organs being mouth-parts : I have not seen food pass into them, nor through the constricted tube, nor have I detected food in its im- mediate neighbourhood, indeed the dimensions of some of the ingested particles have been such as to preclude the possibility of their having traversed that tube, unless it be dilatable. From the identity of the food-stuffs in the parasite with those in the intestinal organs of the termite, we must infer with Mr. Leidy that an oral aperture exists ; or else assume that temporary digestive cavities are formed, and the food particles involved as in the Amoeba. The latter assumption, however, is scarcely tenable ; the cilia appear to spring from a cuticle. I have paid some attention to this point, because it would be interesting to determine how the abundance of ingested food in the animalcule gains admission into its body. I have often observed the infusorian spinning rapidly on its longer axis without making, or seemingly even attempting to make progress forwards. Its revolu- tions have been too rapid to admit of my ascertaining whether or not it was feeding. Again, in swimming through the semi-digested food of the termite, the anterior extremity of the parasite often assumes the helicoidal form observed by Professor Leidy in Trichonympha agilis. Tentatively I incline to the belief that on one or other, or it may even be on ,both, of these occasions the animalcule is taking in food. In two instances I found parasites with two tubes terminating in a single cap, and I was at first disposed to regard this as evidence of longitudinal fission ; but I have more recently obtained the animalcule in forms suggestive of reproduction by transverse fission, and it is obvious the subject needs further investi- gation. Calcutta, ASTRONOMY. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. AT the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society held on the nth of January, the Rev. S. J.. Perry read a paper on the surface of the sun in 1888. Observations of the sun were made at Stonyhurst on 241 days in the year; the sun was without spots on 102. The number of days without spots is rapidly increasing. There were nine such days in 1S86, twenty-nine in 1887, and forty-two in 1888. As a number of small spots in a group were observed on the last day of the year at the high latitude of 36^ south, the minimum period is probably drawing to a close, as the appearance of such groups generally portends a new period of maximum disturbance. A paper by Mr. I. Roberts on "Photographs of the Nebulae in the Pleiades and in Andromeda," was- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 63 read. A photograph of the nebulce in the Pleiades, which was shown, was enlarged four diameters from the negative, which was exposed four hours, and was taken on the 8th of December, in which the structure Avithin the nebula is well defined. An admirable photograph of the nebula in Andromeda had also four hours' exposure, and shows that the nebula is a bright central mass, which is surrounded by a stream of nebulous matter, spiral in form at a considerable inclination to the line of sight. These photographs were taken with a reflecting telescope of 20 inches aperture, and they agree with those taken with a 13-inch refractor by the brothers Henry. Mr. Taylor, at Sir H. Thompson's observatory at Hurstside, has observed nine lines in the spectrum of the nebula in Orion, and two faint lines in the green in the nebula in Andromeda, also one faint line in the green in the nebula in Lyra. In March, Mercury is a morning star in Capri- cornus. Venus is an evening star, shining brilliantly in the aiorth-west after sunset. Mars is an evening star. Jupiter is a morning star. Saturn is a morning star. March 5th, Venus will l)e at the least distance from the sun at 8 hrs. aft. March i8th, Mercury will be at the greatest •distance from the sun. March 25th, Venus will be at her greatest bril- liancy. There will be no occultations of interest during ]\Iarch. Rising, So2ithiiig, and Scfiing of the Principal Planets in March. Rises. Souths. Sets. D. h. m. h. m. h. m. 5 5 44M 10 32M 3 20A Mercury 5 . 12 5 36M 10 27M 3 i8a 19 5 29M 10 30M 3 31A I 26 5 23M 10 39M 3 55A 5 7 33M 2 56A 10 19A Venus ? . .| 12 7 IIM 2 50A 10 29A 19 6 48 M 2 4IA 10 34A 26 6 22M 2 28a 10 34A 5 7 25M I 52A 8 19A Mars cT 12 7 7M I 44A 8 21A 19 6 48M I 36A 8 24A 26 6 30M I 28A 8 26A r 5 3 31M 7 27M II 23M Jupiter X. A 12 3 7M 7 3M 10 59M 19 2 43M 6 39M 10 35M ^ 26 2 19M 6 15M 10 IIM f 5 2 37A 10 15A 5 57M Saturn T?. .| J2 2 7A 9 46A 5 29M 19 I 37A 9 17A 5 IM ( 26 I 8a 8 48A 4 32M NOTES ON NEW BOOKS. /t Monograph of the British Uredinece and Ustila- -/x giiiccv, by Charles B. Plowright, F.L.S. (London : Kegan Paul). Mr. Plowright is well known to the readers of this Journal, many of whom will remember with pleasure his numerous contribu- tions on a subject to which he has ardently devoted many years of patient investigation. He has now laid students under a debt of gratitude by the publi- cation of this handsomely got-up volume. The two natural orders of fungi here treated upon are perhaps the most interesting and common of any groups of fungi. Mr. Plowright deals very fully with their biology and life-history, also with the methods of observing the germination of their spores and of their experimental culture. To agriculturists particularly this work will prove invaluable, for the special sub- jects the author describes are those under which so many of their crops suffer. There are thirteen chapters, the last two of which, on " Spore Culture," and the "Artificial Infection of Plants," are deeply interesting. Then follow long and technical de- scriptions of the British species of these two orders. The work is illustrated with eight plates, containing a large number of exquisitely drawn figures illus- trating the points of Mr. Plowright's work. We heartily recommend those of our readers interested in the subject to procure it for themselves. Rock-Forming Minerals, by Frank Rutley, F.G.S. (London : Thomas Murby). Mr. Rutley is well and widely known as one of the best mineralogists and petrologists of the day. He has been equally suc- cessful both as a lecturer and a writer on these subjects. We are often requested by readers to recommend a work of this kind, and the notice of Mr. Rutley's book, therefore, will be a sufficient answer. It is admirably adapted to the wants of practical students, and the fact that it has been issued in a cheap form will make it none the less welcome to them. The author deals with the necessary appa- ratus, methods of preparation and examination, in- cluding examination by polarized light, optical axes, single and double refraction, reflection, and general microscopic determination. After having fully ex- plained these methods of investigation, Mr. Rutley next leads the student on to learning the leading characters which distinguish the common rock-form- ing minerals from one another, and he gives such a detailed description of the various kinds, accompanied by illustrations, that no reader can fail to identify them by the aid of this book. It is illustrated by 126 woodcuts. In and About Ancient Ipswich, by Dr. J. E. Taylor, F.L.S., &c. (Norwich : Jarrold .and Sons). The Editor's position with regard to this handsomely got- up work precludes criticism ; he may be allowed to state, however, that in it he has endeavoured to describe the origin and growth of an old English 64 HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. town. The palaeolithic and neolithic inhabitants of Ipswich and the neighbourhood are referred to as far as material afforded. The author then proceeds with a chapter on " Roman Ipswich," and gradually traces the antiquarian and historic development of the town up to the present time. The work is printed on hand-made paper, and is embellished by fifty capital illustrations of the most picturesque and historic parts of this very old town, by Mr. Percy E. Stimpson. Two editions were simultaneously issued — a large imperial 4to., and a demy 4to. The number of the large-paper edition being limited, the price has gone up a guinea since the day of publication. OUR SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. [The Editor will be obliged, if, for the benefit of his numerous readers, secretaries of scientific societies will send notices like the following, also place and time of meeting.] T^AST London Natural History and Microscopical i ^ Society: President, W. Smart ; Hon. Secretary, A. Dean. Wakefield Naturalists' Society: President, J. Ger- rard, Esq. ; Hon. Secretary, \V. Rushworth. Manchester Working Lads' Association. Lads'' Literary and Scientific Society : President, Sir Henry Roscoe, M.P. ; Hon. Treasurer and Secretary, Mr. G. Devine ; meeting room, The "Museum" Lads' Club, Mulberry Street, Hulme. Hiiddersfield NaiJiralists' Society : President, J. H. Kirk, Esq. ; Hon. Secretary, S. L, Mosley, Beau- mont Park Museum. Iliiddcrsficld Board Schools Natural Histoiy Society : President, J. W. Robson ; Hon. Secretary, ; Conductors of Ramble, Mrs. H. Rawlings and Mr. S. L. Mosley. Haslingden Natural History Society : President, 7^1 r. Thomas Holden ; Secretary, Mr. David Halstead. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. We have received from Mr. Cecil Carus-Wilson his paper on "Musical Sand," read by him before the Bournemouth Society of Natural Science. He enumerates the localities in which this sand is found, especially that of the Isle of Eigg. He shows that the musical sound is probably due to the grains, which are smooth, round, and nearly the same size, rubbing together. If any dust or water, or in fact anything which would in any way interfere with this rubbing together, is added the sound is at once lost. Starting on these data, Mr. Carus-Wilson set to work to make an artificial musical sand. Up to the time of reading his paper he had only succeeded in making a sand, which, on being struck "gave out the same characteristic ' swish ' that we get from all musical sands when they become mule." We have received Numbers viii., ix., and x. of the "Illustrated Manual of British Birds," by Howard Saunders. The illustrations are exceedingly truthful, and very artistic, and the letter-press is all that could be desired. The experiment of founding a centre of University Extension in Chelsea has proved very successful. Mr. Lant Carpenter's lectures on " Electricity in the Service of Man " have proved extremely satisfactory. The Committee have arranged for a course on "Astronomy," with lantern illustrations, by Mr. J. D. M'Clure, on Friday evenings. There will also be an evening course on Tuesdays on "^Yealth and Industry," by Mr. Llewellyn Smith. Dr. S. R. Gardiner will continue his Monday afternoon lectures on "Modern History." The Rev. Arthur C. Waghorne has in preparation a complete list of the flora of Newfoundland and Labrador, as far as it is known, to be published the coming summer. Hitherto the most compete list has been that of Mr. Reeks, which only comprised 37s species, besides varieties. Mr. Waghorne's contains about 900 species of flowering plants, about 50 ferns, and over 250 mosses and lichens. His list will give the common English, and, as far as it is known, the common Newfoundland names. It will also include the flora of St. Pierre and Miquelon. The January number of " Research " contains a capital portrait and biographical sketch of Mr. J. W. Davis, F.L.S., F.G.S., the now famous ichthyologist. Mr. Davis is only forty-three years of age, and he has had much work to do in his own commercial busi- ness, as well as public, municipal, and other work. Nevertheless, he has found time for original research of the most accurate and valuable kind, and "Re- search" is perfectly justified in according to this genial and hard-working Yorkshire amateur scientist that high meed of praise which those who know him best also know he best deserves. B. B. Le T. will find an account of Lord Bute's beavers in "Notes and Jottings from Animal Life," by Frank Buckland. The " Echo " states that Dr. Kruss, a celebrated chemist of Munich, has succeeded in decomposing cobalt and nickel — substances hitherto believed to be elements. There is one constituent common to both. Can readers afford further information ? Mr. Alfred C. Haddon writes from Thursday Island (Torres Straits) to " Nature," describing the employment there of the sucker-fish (Echeneis), in fishing for turtles. The natives make a hole in the caudal fin, or tail, of the fish, and fasten a cord to it, so as to make the fish secure. Another cord is passed through the mouth and out by the gills. By means of these two cords the fish is retained, while slung over the sides of the canoe, in the water. When a HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 65 turtle is sighted deep down in the water, the front piece of string is withdrawn, and plenty of slack is allowed for the tall string. As soon as the sucking- fish spots the turtle, after swimming round it, it attaches itself to the reptile's carapace. Then a man with a long rope attached to his arm, dives into the water, and is guided to the turtle by the line which had been fastened to the sucker's tail. As soon as he reaches the turtle he gets on its back, passes his arms behind and below its fore-flappers, and draws up his legs in front and below the creature's hind- flappers. In this position he is rapidly drawn up to the surface, of course bringing the turtle with him. It is as good as a chapter of "Alice in Wonderland." On the arrival of the intrepid diver at the surface, the sucking-fish changes its position from the turtle's back to its plastron, from back to front. Then, Mr. Haddon tells us, after the gaper, or sucking-fish, has done its work in turtle-catching, it is eaten. That is thoroughly human. Nevertheless, he informs us, that the natives have a "great respect" for the gaper. We have received an interesting paper on the " Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Leicester- shire " by Montagu Browne, F.G.S., Curator of the Town Museum, Leicester. The paper consists of four divisions. In the first, dealing principally with bone and horn, mention is made of a wattled well dis- covered in Leicester about fourteen feet below the surface of the ground, which, as our author shows, had most probably an origin long before the Romans occupied the site. The rest of the paper describes the implements, &c., found in the well, and on the various ground-surfaces above, and others found in the neighbourhood. Thus the second chapter deals of pottery, the third of bronze, horse-trappings, &c., and the fourth of stone implements, such as hammer- stones, or pestles, and querns. The most important remains are figured by the Collo-type process. MICROSCOPY. The Quekett Club.— The January number of "The Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club" contains the following papers:— "On the Structure of the Valve of Pleurosigma," by T. F. Smith ; " On the Formation of Diatom Structure," and " Some Observations on the Human Spermatozoon," by E. M. Nelson; "On some Remarkable Coccids from British Guiana," by S. J. M'Intire; "Notes on Mounting Diatomaces?," liy H. Morland ; " On Pcrophora Lister i," and " On Lininias cormiella" by C. Rousselet. Preparing Coffee-Bean for Sections.— Mr. J.'s failure in preparing a coffee-bean for section- cutting by soaking in water, is probably due to his neglecting to destroy its vitality. This may be effected by soaking in methylated spirit, or in a one-per-cent. solution of chromic acid in water, and then it may be prepared as Dr. Marsh recommends. — Ernest O. JShyers, Hotmslorv. "The Journal of Microscopy " for January is to hand. The following are the most important papers:— "The Nutritive Processes in Saccharo- myces," by Henry C. A. Vine (illustrated) ; "Micro- scopical Imagery," by Dr. Royston-Pigott (illus- trated) ; " Spider Gossip," by H. Vl. J. Underbill (illustrated); "Development of the Tadpole," by J. W. Gatehouse, Part v. (illustrated); "The Mam- malia: Extinct Species and Surviving Forms," by Mrs. Alice Bodington (illustrated), besides an abun- dance of interesting notes, &c. Folliculina Boltoni.— I am pleased to say I have found this curious and interesting infusorian this month (Feb. i) in fairly considerable numbers in a pool in the suburbs of Birmingham. Named after the late Mr. T. Bolton, its original discoverer, it seems to have been so seldom seen at any micro- scopical society's meetings, that I am very pleased to again come across it; its rarity possibly is more apparent than real. I have only found it once before, and then only one. No doubt its extreme timidity has something to do with its so seldom being seen by any one. I can only get it to show itself by patiently waiting, and allowing it to stand a time in the trough in which I have placed it. It is easily mistaken when retracted for a platycola, but when once it appears its identity is plainly manifest. It is interesting from the fact of its being our only freshwater representative (so far) of the folUculinas, all the others being marine forms ; it much resembles also Freia elegans, only its peristomal lobes are unequal, one lobe, the left, being about twice the size of the other; also in F. Boltoni the lip of the lorica is even, not everted. Saville Kent's figure hardly does it full justice, I fancy. I have examined about twenty specimens, and none of them fully represent his sketch. They are repre- sented by Kent as .^ in. in length, but my specimens measured rather more by the micrometer and crossed line ocular. It comes out well by good dark-ground illumination with a J-in. objective ; I think you see (in this case) rather more detail than by direct light. —E. IT. IV., Edgbaston, Birmingham. New Automatic Regulator.— Mr. J. H. Steward, 406 Strand, London, has brought out a new small-size automatic regulator for use with the limelight. As will be seen by illustration, it is fitted with a cap, cylindrical in form, and inside this is an indiarubber bellows, fitted top and bottom to metal discs, the upper one being acted on by a spiral spring, and the lower attached to a pair of lazy levers con- nected to eccentrics that open and close valve of cylinder. W^hen the bellows is full, the opening from valve of cylinder is closed, and, when partly or wholly 66 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. empty, is partly or wholly open ; in this way a <:onstant supply is kept in this miniature bag, and •the pressure is always equal right up to the last atom of gas. The spiral spring is of the strength that, •after considerable experiment, has been found to be perfect for either triple, bi-unial, or single lanterns, Fig. 56 Fig- 57- but for special purposes] lighter or stronger springs can be fitted, it being readily done by simply inserting them in their seatings after unscrewing the brass cylindrical cap of regulator. This valve will doubtless be appreciated by all those who use the oxy-hydrogen lamp with the microscope. ZOOLOGY. Parasite on Arvicola Arvensis.— lias Mr. C. F. George noticed the singular situation in which a parasite resembling Laelaps arvolica occurs, viz : — the tail of the short-tailed field-mouse (^Arvicola arvensis) ? Some time since, whilst preparing for the microscope the skin of this member, I was some- what puzzled by the discover>' of sundry oval bodies, apparently adherent to the hairs, and which at first I took to be the eggs of some creature. A closer inspection, however, revealed the fact that they were oval cavities, in the substance of the skin, in each of which was snugly ensconced a mite, which fitted its cell as closely as does the unhatched chick the egg- shell. At the time I failed to distinguish the form of the parasite, but was, subsequently, fortunate enough to find one or two sluggishly perambulating the surface, and this after being submitted to such rude treatment as the following : First, the skin was brushed with a very hard brush, to remove all adherent particles ; it was then submitted to a scrub in a strong soap lather ; rinsed ; again brushed with a stiff brush ; soaked in water for some hours ; stretched ; and finally subjected to pressure until quite drj'. Yet, upon examination, sundry of the parasites were, as stated, discovered still living, although not par- ticularly active. I regret that inexperience in the study of these parasites precludes me from determin- ing v.'hether or not this particular mite is identical with that figured by Mr. George, and, unfortunately, the immersion of the tail in balsam, and consequent obliteration of many of the creature's distinguishing features, renders identification next to impossible. — Edward II. Robertson. AcALEPH^ (Physalia).— I have received a very fine specimen of the Portuguese man of war, AcalephK (Physalia), a kind of Medusa. This marine animal, which is a very fine one, I have not seen on our South Devon coast for over fifty years. I remember gathering when a boy, after a long southerly gale, nearly twenty of them, and having my sleeves turned up, I placed them in my arms, and was fearfully stung by them, until the doctor applied remedies, which gave me relief, so I have cause to remember the occurrence. I should like to know if any one (reader of SciENCE-Gossip), has seen these marine animals on our coast this winter. The animal was found at the back of the Ness rocks, Slialdon, near Teignmouth, and given to me by a Mr. Woodhouse, who was staying at Col. Brines, the Ness Plouse, Shaldon. I have kept it in a large glass vessel, and hundreds of persons have been to see it. The colour of the tentacles was a beautiful deep blue, and they were about sixteen inches in length. The floating part, with the body of the animal was about six inches in length, of a sky- blue colour. — A. y. I\. Sclatcr, M.C.S., Bank Street, Teignmouth. Deilephila Galli. — I have a specimen of this moth which was caught here in 1887. — Henry Lamb, j\Iaidsto7ie. Dysthynia Lactuosa. — I caught a single specimen of this little noctua on the N. Downs, near Maidstone, last summer.- — Henry Lamb, Maidstone. Anodonta cygnea, Linne. — To be classed with a conchologist of such long standing as Dr. Henry Woodward is indeed an honour, and one to which I make not the slightest pretension. Mr. Williams cannot have read my note with any more care than did Mr. George Roberts, or he would have seen that the singular number, "variety-monger " was used, and he would not have placed the following atrocity, viz. " variety-mongerers," in inverted commas, as if it were a quotation from my note. It is only in fairness to myself, believe me, that I mention a single gram matical blunder. Further, the pretence is made, and very clumsily made, that my wish was to constitute Anodonta anatina, a variety. Now the word I used with regard to this form was " variation," and it will HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIF. 67 be seen directly by those who " understand why and wherefore the term variety was instituted," that, even had I the impudence, in my wildest dreams, to think of dogmatizing to the slightest degree, there would not be many grounds to go upon, though, according to the "modern" shell-collector, that would be of little consequence. The anatomical differences described by Mr. Lloyd * resolve them- selves on reference to the following assertion: "In Anodonta anatina the branchial cavity is not only comparatively, but actually much larger and fringed with much more delicate and numerous tentacles than in Anodonta cygnea." No details are given, no statement of how many specimens of each form were exaniined, and no measurements are recorded. Perhaps the words "had you been a little more modern," mean had you taken the trouble to look up trivial references, very recently ? If, however, Mr. Williams should be able to dissect the two forms, and to find out any real anatomical differences between them, "then" — returning the compliment — "when he has gained a scientific knowledge of what he is talking about we shall be pleased to hear from him again. "— IVil/red Mark IVebbl Perforating Birds'-Eggs. — Your correspondent signing K, D. will find that by stopping the holes in his birds'-eggs, he will prevent the moth and other insects getting into the shells. If the eggs are not stopped, and there is the least moisture left in them, the moth will very probably find its way in and spoil the shell by eating away all the inside membrane. I have a large number of species all stopped, and I have never but once found a moth in any of them, and, in that case, I must have stopped the moth in. The egg was sent to me from a distance. I now examine all blown eggs which come in, and in one egg I found a moth had established itself during the short journey from Nottingham. If K. D. intends being a large collector, I recommend him to use a pair of common bellows for blowing eggs, as they save so much lung power. The rough apparatus which I made two seasons ago, consists of a pair of bellows, with about eighteen inches of elastic tube, one end being bound to the nosel and at the other end a glass blow-pipe. With this simple machine I have often blown from fifty to one hundred eggs, with no other exertion to myself beyond holding one egg in one hand, and the blow-pipe in the other. It will blow eggs cleaner and much more quickly than they can be blown in the old way, by the mouth. — Joseph P. Nimn, Roys ton. The Activity of the Moth Kind. — In the summer of 1865, I was a young and ardent entomo- logist, and my curiosity was drawn to marvellous restlessness of the moth kind, whose occupation lay * " Annals and Magazine of Natural History," vol. v. (1870) pp. 65-6. amongst the flowers of a Hampshire garden. On the nincteentli and twentieth of July, I entered a memorandum. Byopliila perla, Triphana intcrjecta and the humming-bird moth have lately connected the flight of the day and night vagrants. Inteijccla commences its nimble motion a little before sunset glows in the trees, and when twilight falls the Bacchanalian Gamma moth comes swarming to the blooms, having spent the morning with me on the commons and meadows where it usually sleeps at noon. I watched them pilfering the petunias until the lights went out at midnight, and descending into the garden at the chilly hour that precedes the dawn, I came on one that loitered at the revels, leading me to suppose it had drunk both long and deep. As its friends were absent I conclude that they were over- come with the morning drowse. I eschewed the company of Gamma until this season, when, observing a noonday sleeper on a wheat stalk, half way between Ramsgate and Margate, I was tempted to snip his perch and bear him away in order to show his pretty ruff and silvery. I had carried him a good mile by the milestones, when awakening to suspicion he be- thought him to play truant and skipped away. — • A, PL Sii'inton. Balia Perversa, var. Irridula, Jeff. — On November 23rd last, I took four specimens of this variety from under the bark of old holly bushes in this parish. Has it been previously recorded from Great Britain ? The only locality I find mentioned for it in Jeffreys' " British Conchology," and Rimmer's " Land and Freshwater Shells," is the neighbourhood of Cork. — yohn Hawell, 31. A., Inglcby Greenhoio Vicarage, N'ortliallerton, Yorks. BOTANY. Notes on the Flora of the Wye. — It was my good fortune to spend my holidays this year in the beautiful Wye valley, when, in spite of the dull, rainy weather which characterised the summer months, I obtained a very fair list of the West of England plants. Making the pretty market town of Ross my centre of operations, I made frequent excursions to the outlying districts. A list of some of the charac- teristic plants of the neighbourhood will show more clearly than I can hope to describe, the wealth of vegetation to be met with here. Symonds Yat is a rocky gorge of precipitous limestone cliffs, richly and densely wooded from the rugged ivy-grown summits down to the base, where the Wye alternately glides deep and silent between steep banks, and tears itself into foam over the sharp stones that form its bed, with a noise like that of a cataract, as it spreads itself out over the shallows. It is difficult to imagine a more beautiful and verdant spot. The banks and dells are carpeted with mosses in infinite variety. There are 68 HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSI P. long tufts of dark Polytrichum, elegant mosses of transparent Mnium, and vivid Dicranum ; cushions of hoary Grimmia and rare Orthotrichum on the jutting rocks ; a mantle of feathery Hypnum spread over the ground and rocks. The cliffs have great pendent masses of the undulated foliage of Ncckera crispa and its near ally coviplanata ; while a profusion of Aspleniiim trichomancs fills up the clefts. A few minutes' search at the foot of the slope and Ccphalan- thcra ensifolia, Melica Jiniflora, and its elegant little relation, nutans, J^uzula Forsteri and pilosa, Orchis maadata, Listera ovata, Epipactis latifolia, Cardamine impatiens, Conium, Viscum, and a host of others are in my portfolio. Mounting by a steep intricate path, I find the gooseberry looking indigenous, the maple, cornel. Viburnum Lantana, and Opuhis ; reaching the top of the Yat, the pretty J'aleriana dioica in a stream, Lysimachia iicmoruin and I.uzula mullijlora ; in the boggy road. Milium, Liizula maxima, and the fox- glove in abundance are followed by the lady-fern, Filix-mas, Orcoptcris and dilatafa, iv nudum, and the oak-fern are not uncommon among the rocks. Once more descending the slope, I find Ophrys apifera, JIabenaria ckloraniha, Ilieraciiini borcale. Allium 7irsiniim, LiUiospermum atx'Oisc, Carcx rcmota, and ■nuiricata. There is also plenty of Hypcriciim monta- iium, hirsutum, and Androsamuni, Bromus erectus, and Geranium hicidnm. Atropa belladonna still grows about here, a specimen from near the Wye was gathered for me by a cottager. On the Coldwell Rocks, Fan's quadrifolia, mostly five-leaved, Daphne laureola, Vinca nnnor, Veronica montana. Cotyledon ; on a tree, Chrysospleniuni oppositijoliuni on the edge of a fountain in the rock, were found, with Valeriana officinalis and a plentiful growth of woodland herbs, woodruff, sanicle, hemp, agrimony, speedwells, poly- pody, galia in many species. By the river, Alenlha rotnndifolia, Thallctrum flavum, Rhinanthus, and Stellarianmbrosa ; climbing over the bushes Valeriana sandnicifolia were common on the banks and in the wood. On the slope opposite, Ophrys mnscifera, Cldora perfoliata, Sclerochloa rigida, were yielded after a little search. Space forbids me to notice many interesting plants, but some idea of the abun- dant flora may be gathered from the fact, that nearly all the above were found within half a mile from the station, and all within a mile and a half. About Ross a few plants worthy of notice may be found. The soapwort, Stellaria nemorum, .Egopodium podagraria, Onopordum acanthium, Kanuncnlns aix'ensis,jluitans. Allium compactum, QLnanthe crocata, Potamogeton in numerous species with other such plants as may be found on most river-banks. At Tintern, among an abundant flora, Euphorbia striata takes front rank, it is still plentiful both by the river and roadsides. Altogether the above localities yielded nearly four hundred species, omitting rubi, rasa, and numerous sjiecies of Potamogeton which I have left for another year. — H. IV. Monington. The Sunflower. — Mr. G. Wheatcroft asks you about this flower turning its face to the sun. I had many opportunities of watching them some years ago, and my conclusions were that they did turn their heads with the sunlight. The one that your correspondent observed as not turning was probably in the shade, as even a tree acts upon the flower and stops the motion. All the light that can be got is required by this flower to bring its seed to maturity, and this is dependent on the light falling full on the flower. It is no freak and no marvel ; it is a necessity ; but man has not dived into the causes of the visible actions around him. Sunlight is always with us somewhere, and without it no vegetation reaches perfection ; yet all grow to the light ; oats in Italian cellars stretch their long white heads to the window ; yew-trees on our open downs grow slender in their own shade, while their foliage extends chiefly to the south and east. Plants in our windows all stretch their tendrils to the light, yet no two seem to accept it in the same way. Colour has much to do with this, aided by the constituents of the body ; all of this is formed of water attracted as sap from root to highest leaf, and this foliage gives the plant its body, its flower, its fruit, and its seed. All is done by the wondrous powers of light. The sunflower is not the only one that shows its lore ; there are many that shut their petals as evening draws on, and I have heard tropical forests awakening with an audible murmur as the rising sun fell on their resting foliage. It was these visible actions that led to the publication of" Sunlight," where it is treated as a motor, with force enough in itself to create this earth from gaseous or nebulous matter more or less sensitive in its con- stituents to light, while in its whole it became the heterogeneous mass we live on, accepting light as a cause, and giving out warmth from that absorbed light to a zone extending some four or five miles above, and below the sea level. While science is occupied in useless endeavours to make their ends meet from the nearly ruined Nebular hj'pothesis of Laplace, a few outsiders are studying nature, and are coming to the true conclusion that sunlight rules this world now and was the cause of its creation. Hence vegetable and animal must have light. The more we study the subject, the more we see of that lore which dominates all the sunflower kinds. — H. P. Malet. Clifton Botany. — My criticism on the list of Clifton plants furnished to Science Gossip by "Way- farer " has been acknowledged by the author with such excellent temper that I am sure he will permit me to represent that " dehberately mis-stated precise localities " for plants, be these correctly named or not, must in effect be entirely pernicious. No useful purpose can be served by publishing the most pleasantly-written account of discoveries made under impossible circumstances. Grabbers of rarities and exterminators can be effectually baffled without HA R D WI CKE 'S S CIE NCE -GOS SIP. 69 making meadow-rue to flourish on solid limestone ; or stirring the bile of plodding botanographers by defining habitats which turn out to be several miles distant from the spots where specimens were actually observed. Slips of the pen seem innocent and harmless, but un- luckily they retain vitality enough to pass from book to book, gathering authority as they go, long after the possibility of taking the careless writer to task has passed away. If not shot at first sight, such lapses are hard to kill.— >.f. JVallcr White, Clifton. GEOLOGY, &c. "Geology and Mining Industry of Lead- viLLE, Colorado, ^VITH Atlas," by Samuel Frank- lin Emmons (Washington : Government Printing Office). This voluminous and well got-up volume (which forms the eleventh vol. of the " Mono- graphs of the United States Geological Survey"), sustains the high reputation earned by the preceding volumes. The author (Samuel Franklin Emmons) opens with a topographical description of Leadville ; its position, discovery, and devejopment. The narra- tive of the discovery of gold here, and the subsequent rush to the gold-fields is most interesting, and the stories of the fortunes made there, make a poor editor's pockets feel very light. Mr. Emmons describes the microscopical and chemical composition of various rocks and minerals associated with the district he has so well studied. The volume is artistically illustrated throughout, and a very useful geological atlas is added. One of the most important chapters is that on the Composition of Vein Materials and the Origin of Ores. This important contribution to mineralogical and geological science extends to nearly 800 pp. quarto. We cannot but compare the generosity with which the United States Government send out gratuitously to English scientific journals, with the beggarly conduct of our English Stationery Office, which does not even send out for review to the English Press any of the scientific volumes, brought out at such vast expense either by our own Geological Survey, or of the " Challenger " Expedition. Misconceptions regarding the Evidence WHICH WE OUGHT TO EXPECT OF FORMER GlACIAL Periods.— Dr. James Croll, F.R.S., recently read a paper on the above subject before the Geological So- ciety. He said the imperfection of the geological record is greater than is usually believed. Not only are the records of ancient glacial conditions imperfect, but this follows from the principles of geology. The evidence of glaciation is to be found chiefly on land-surfaces, and the ancient land-surfaces have not, as a rule, been preserved. Practically the several formations consist of old sea-bottoms, formed out of material derived from the degradation of old land-surfaces. The exceptions are trifling, such as the under-layers of coal-seams, and dirt-beds like those at Portland. The transformation of an old land-surface into a sea- bottom will probably obliterate every trace of glaciation ; even the stones would be deprived of their ice-markings ; the preservation of Boulder-clay, as such, would be exceptional. The absence of large erratic blocks in the stratified beds may indicate a period of extreme glaciation, or one absolutely free from ice. The more complete the glaciation, the less- probability of the ice-sheet containing any blocks,, since the rocks would be covered up. Because there are no large boulders m the strata of Greenland or Spitzbergen, Nordenskjold maintains that there were- no glacial conditions there down to the termination of the Miocene period. The author maintained that glaciation is the normal condition of polar regions, and if these at any time were free from ice, it could' only arise from exceptional circumstances, such as a peculiar distribution of land and water. It was extremely improbable that such a state of things could have prevailed during the whole of the long period from the Silurian to the close of the Tertiary. A million years hence it would be difficult to find any trace of what we now call the glacial epoch ; though if the stratified rocks of the earth's crust consisted of old land-surfaces, instead of old sea-bottoms, traces of many glacial periods might be detected. The present land-surface will be entirely destroyed in order to form the future sea-bottom. It is only those objects which lie in existing sea-bottoms which will remain as monuments of the Post-tertiary glacial' epoch. Is it, then, probable that the geologist of the future will find in the rocks formed out of the non- existing sea-bottom more evidence of a glacial epocli during Post-tertiary times than we now do of one, say, during the Miocene, Eocene, or Permian period "r Palaeontology can afford but little reliable information as to the existence of former glacial periods. In the discussion which followed, the president considered that the author underrated the amount of old subaerial surface. Many freshwater deposits, such as the Wealden, were fluviatile and hence subaerial. And if glacial materials had then been in the neighbourhood they would have been preserved. Professor Prestwich thought if glacial periods had formerly existed we should not be dependent only on land-surfaces, but the molluscan fauna of the Arctic seas, and the glacial debris and boulders spread over the bed of those seas would bear evidence of analogous conditions. We had in India and Australia some evidence in favour of such conditions in Permian and Carboniferous times, but these even were not yet fully established ; and as to Eocene and Miocene times, he knew of no evidence. Dr. Evans said, whether the theory were true or not, glacial conditions must in all probability have pre- vailed in some parts of the globe during all periods, though probably not always in the existing centres of glaciation ; and of these former glacial conditions some evidence was already forthcoming. The alleged misconceptions did not seem to him to exist, unless to a 7° HARDWI CKE ' S S CIENCE- G O SSI P. very small extent j Professor Seeley observed that in this case it was unsatisfactory to have to deal mainly with negative evidence. As Dr. CroU has not attempted to estimate the significance and origin of the boulders which occur in many geological dei:)osits, we are not bound to do the work for him. Every geologist admits that glaciation would be a necessary incident in any period of time if the land were high enough. Boulders thus formed on land might be imlsedded in a marine stratum when the land was subsequently depressed without indicating their age or origin. The contention for glacial periods was superfluous. The Antiquity of Man in America. — We have received a copy of Dr. C. C. Abbott's address on the above subject delivered before the Cleveland Meeting of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science (Section of Anthropology) in August of last year. Dr. Chas. C. Abbott entitles it the " Evidences of the Antiquity of Man in Eastern North America." This evidence consists almost entirely of the stone implements which have been found in such abundance in the Trenton Gravels in the Delaware valley. Dr. Abbott shows that the implements made of argillite are not, as has been supposed of Indian origin, but date back far previous to the occupation of America by the Indians to a time when they were manufactured by man coeval with the mammoth and the mastodon, and when the climate of Greenland extended to the mouth of New York Harbour. That the argillite implements were not made by the Indians, nor the flint and jasper ones by Paleolithic man is shown by the fact, that, except where they have become associated by subsequent ■cultivation of the soil, the two are seldom found together, the Indian implements occurring in the surface soil, while the paleoliths are found in the (Travels. The theory of the Esquimaux being the descendants of the paleolithic men of North America is upset by three skulls found in the Trenton gravel. These skulls are unlike either those of the Esquimaux or those of the Indians. NOTES AND QUERIES. Migration of Butterflies. — This "Indian summer " has closed with a heavy thunderstorm that raged all last night. Just now the air down here is perfectly still, not a leaf stirring, but looking up we can see by the motion of the clouds that a current of air is coming from the north. Borne along by it are hundreds of l:)utterflies, some flying so high that they only appear like black specks on the fleecy white clouds, iaut all moving onward as if with a fixed intent. They fly with a rapid movement of the wings, now and then soaring and floating on the air, and so are carried onwards until the rapid motion begins again. Unless you saw them, I tliink you would hardly believe how high these small creatures fly, and how strong they are on the wing. This migration of butter- flies is nothing new to us. Every year about this time we have what we call "a butterfly norther." One year it was stormy, and the butterflies blown about, settled in hundreds on the trees about our home. One large white oak was covered with them, and when the sun shone out they looked monotonously beautiful as they opened and closed their fire-coloured, silver-lined wings. I should like to know whence they start, and whither they go. Wherever they are born, in their larval state, they must commit great havoc on the foliage. It is a curious fact that these clouds of butterflies always consist of this one species. I will try and get one and send it as a specimen, and shall be greatly obliged if any reader of Science-Gossip will name it for me. While I write they are still coming from the north, and passing high over our heads on their journey south, they have been doing so all day ; some that are flying lower seem disposed to settle, so I hope I niay secure one to send. Several people in different parts of this country have also noticed this yearly migration of butterflies. — J. W. B. Blunt, Kerr Co., Texas. N'ovember, 1888. The Sheep Panic near Reading. — We beg to call attention to a remarkable circumstance which occurred in this immediate locality on the night of Saturday, November 3rd. At a time as near eight o'clock as possible the tens of thousands of sheep folded in the large sheep-breeding districts, north, east, and west of Reading were taken with a sudden fright, jumping their hurdles, escaping from the fields, and running hither and thither ; in fact, there must for some time have been a perfect stampede. Early on Sunday morning the shepherds found the animals under hedges and in the roads, panting as if they had been terror-stricken. The extent of the occurrence may be judged when we mention that every large farmer from Wallingford on the one hand, to Twyford on the other, has reported that his sheep were similarly frightened, and it is also noteworthy that with two or three exceptions the hill-country north of the Thames seems to have been principally affected. We have not heard, nor can any of the farmers give any reasonable explanation of the facts we have described. The night was intensely dark, with occasional flashes of lightning, but we scarcely think the latter cir- cumstance would account for such a wide-spread efTect. We would suggest the probability of a slight earthquake being the cause, but, perhaps you or some of the readers of Science-Gossip may be able to offer a more satisfactory explanation. — Oakshott &= Millard. Centipedes. — I have been greatly interested in Miss Gould's article, and should much hke to see a complete list of the British species, with short hints by which to distinguish them, or be referred to a work giving this information. Some are probably local. I have turned over a great number of stones and sought in other likely places when searching for mollusca, but I never remember to have seen either No. 4 or No. 7 in the illustration. My experience with Gcophilus clcctricits is that it gives much more light than the glow-worm ; I remember seeing one among grass on a road side, the surrounding grass was also luminous and my fingers became so on capturing the animal. — IV. A. Gain. Herring in Shore. — A friend and I had our holidays at the sea-side on the loth and nth August last, and had some sport, fishing among the ro(.ks. One of the fish we caught was a saith, which we cut up and found two large herrings in its stomach. To all appearance it had just caught them in the pool where we were fishing ; they were entire and fresh. The herring were near the shore. The Banff and HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCR- GO SSI P. 71 Macduff fishermen shot their nets at from one to three miles out, and had good average catches. — W. Sim, Fyvic. Cats. — Mr. Mattieu Williams's note in the last number of Science-Gossip anent "Cats at the British Association," reminds me that at the little village of Dinas Powis, about four miles from Cardiff, a Manx cat was introduced to the neighbourhood very many years since and long ago went the way of all flesh. Nevertheless, to this day, individuals appear minus the caudal appendage, while its brothers and sisters adopt the prevailing fashion of cats in general, and appear fully equipped in this particular.— ]V. H. Harris, Cardiff. Pips Germinating. — I see in a recent Science- Gossip an account of a lemon pip germinating inside the fruit. The following came under my notice. Early in September of last year, my wife, having cut a lemon in two, was surprised to find in one of the halves what she supposed to be a piece of stick, which she took out and threw away. On examining the pips, &c., in the strainer after the juice had been strained, she found one of the pips with a root. On being told this I searched for the supposed piece of stick, and found it to consist of a plumule about three inches long, part of which was green, and two leaves, \ inch by \ inch, also green. The light must have penetrated through the rmd, or how comes it that the leaves were green ? I liave mounted the specimen, which I shall keep as a curiosity. — y, Taylor. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. G. F. Stutton. — If possible, we reply to queries sent us in the following month, but many objects have to be sent to specialists to name, and we have to wait their time. See the column in the " Wesley an Naturalist." Get Stank's " fSritish Mosses," coloured plates. M. P. — Get Thome's " Botany," published by Longman, price A,s. dd., for details of structure, &c., and the vol. published by the Christian Knowledge Society, "Flowers of the Field," by Mr. Johns, for hgs. and descriptions of British plants. J. J. HoLSTEAD, AND OTHERS. — There ought to be no difficulty in j'our getting Science-Gossip earlier now. We are publishing it a week earlier this year than before. F. C. King. — Many thanks. We were promised to have a continuation of the papers on "The Two Mirrors of the Micro- scope," as soon as the author could find time. A Young Collector. — The specimen you sent is Geraniuvi sylvaticiim. W. Sim. — Thanks for nice mounted specimen of insect, which is Tingris crassiockari. See coloured plate in the number for January, 1884. John Collins. — Your specimen appears to be a specimen of Nostoc. Mr. C. Carus-Wilson, of Bournemouth, Hants, wishes some correspondent to give him the address of the manufac- turers of wool slag used for non-conducting purposes. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un- dertake to insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule of not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names. To Dealers and Others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply Disguised Advertisembnts, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken o{ o\it gratuitous insertion of " exchanges " which cannot be tolerated. We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or initials) and full address at the end. Special Note. — There is a tendency on the part of some exchangers to send more than one per month. We only allow this in the case of writers of papers. A. H. INIcBean. — The "locusts" mentioned as being the food of John the Baptist, are usually regarded as the insects, which are much eaten by the Arabs to this daj', and not the bean pod which goe^ by this name. ' n Mr. Cecil C/\RUS-Wilson requires a meteorite, Eozooit Canadcnse, platyscopic lens, geological diagrams or lantern slides (photo), the "Year Book of Facts" for 1878, by James Mason, the number of" The Atlantic INIonthly " containini; p. 657 (vol. xii.), and Nummulitic limestone. — Athlone, West Bourne- mouth, Hants. Wanted, a geological hammer. Offered, micro-slides of freshwater alga; (Batrachospermum, QEdogonium, Draparnaldia, &c.), and fresh, unutoiuited and mounted, but not cleaned, diatomaceee. Also numerous dried seeds and fruit.— Otto V. Darbishire, Ball. Coll., Oxford. EXCHANGES. Wanted, teeth and bones of different animals; also any rock specimens. Liberal exchange offered in first-class microscopic slides. — .A. J. Doherty, 63 Burlington Street, Manchester. What offers for A. Naquet's " Principles of Chemistry," W. Lee's "Acousics, Liyht and Heat," F. Guthrie's "Mag- netism and Electricity,'' " The Mechanic's Friend," and Vols. i. and ii. of " English Mechanic?" Micro accessories preferred. — A. \V. Watson, i86 Downham Road, Islington, N. An herbarium, British and foreign, in exchange for books of interest, or offers. — J. H. Lewis, F.L.S., 145 Windsor Street, Liverpool Street. Wanted, fossils from London clay, gault and permian, in exchange for good carboniferous limestone, coal measures, lias, or chalk fossils. — Peter J. Huberts, 4 Shepherd Street, Bacup. FoK exchange. — Beck's small microtome, D'Anvert's " Ele- mentary History of Art," M. C. Cooke's "Microscopic Fungi" (coloured plates), Milne's "Earthquakes and other Earth Movements," all new. Wanted. — Numbers of "Nature" (all or any), Nov. and Dec. 1887 ; lantern slides to illustrate paper on " Clouds and Rain ;" Lyell's "Elements of Geology " (state edition), and the following of International Scientific Series: "Volcanoes" (Judd) ; "Geological Hist, of Plants" (Dawson) ; "Weather" (Abercromby) ; "Forms of Water" (Tyndall) ; "Sociology" (Spencer); "The Sun" (Young). — F. Worgan, 34 Cedar Street, Derby. Offered, three microscopic fossil pearls, on slide. Wanted, Argicpe cristcHula, capsula, Lima eltiptica, subauriculata, Avicula hirundo, JModiolaria nigra, Lcpton sqjtajnosjtju, Loripes divaricatus, Isocardia cor, Tellina balaustina, Lyoti- sia Norvcgica, Tht-acia distorta, pubescens, Xearea 4 sp., Saxicava Norvegica, Gastrochccna dubia, PJioladidea papy- racea. Chiton scabridus, Trochiis Grmilaiidicus, occideiitalis, lantkina rotundata, Buccinuin sinistrorsmii, Humphrey- siaiutin, Buccinopsis Dalei, Fusus Xorvegicus, Turtoni, Isian- dicus, Berniciensis. — J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning. Wanted, odd numbers of Braithwaite's "Moss Flora," or any British or foreign works on Hepaticae. Offered, stuffed or live birds, birds' eggs, micro slides, &c. Have a large number of stuffed birds for selection. — J. A. Wheldon, Chemist, York. Wanted, to exchange mosses and flowering plants for others ; also land and freshwater shells for others. — J. A. Wheldon, York. W.^NTED, Herbert Spencer's "Psychology," "Political Institutions," " Ecclesiastical Institutions," " Descriptive Sociology," and " Essays." Offered, dried flowering plants, mosses (mostly in fruit), Lyell's "Principles of Geology," Berkeley's " British Mosses," &c.— J. W. B., 56 Vine Street, Liverpool. Conchology. — About 300 specimens of U. timiidus, U. pic- torum, and A . cygttaa ; also a number of engravings of British and Continental varieties of unios and anodons. Wanted, Con- tinental unionidae, varieties of U. pictonim, or rare British helices, or offers. — Geo. Roberts, Lofthouse, near Wakefield. Duplicates. — 6'. comeuin, var. scaldiaiia, P. fontiiiale, var. henslowana, A. cygnea, var. incrassaia, P. contecta, P. nantileus, P. glaber, P. dilatafus, P. albiis, P. kypnoruni, V. pellucida, Z. glaber, Z. excavatus, var. vitriita, H. arbus- torum, var. jiavescens, H. concinna, H. sericea, H. ericetoricjii, vars. miliar and alba, P. umbilicata, var. curia, C. rugosa, var. dubia, C. tridens, C. minivuim. Desiderata, — P. roseurn, L. involnta, H. rcvelata, B. montanus, V. lillejeborgi, V. jnouiinsiana, V. angustior, V. munitissima, A. lineata, and many varieties. — Chas. Oldtiam, Ashton-on-Mersey, Cheshire. English land, marine and freshwater shells (named), in exchange for foreign examples, birds' eggs, or medals. — F. Stanley, Margate. Wanted, British and foreign sponges, gorgonias, &c. ; frag- ments taken. Also starches (genuine), large spines of echino- dermata, holothuriae, parasite-, freshwater algs, wood sections, polyzoa, micro-fungi, entomolot;ical and other unmounted material. British land and freshwater shells, and unmounted micro material in exchange.— Ernest O. Meyers, Richmond House, Hounslow, W. Wanted, micro slides illustrating stages of potato disease [Peronospora in/cstans). Good exchange offered in British shells or other slides.— J. W. Cundall, Carrville, Redland, Bristol. 72 HARDWICKE S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Wanted, turn-table for making cells, &c., or section cutter for soft substances : will give in exchange 21 parts of " Cassell's Popular Educator," one vol. of " World of Wonder" (unbound), and good specimens of Liiimaus stagnalis. — J. J. Edwards, 43 Calvert Ko;iorpJt o > o CO W H O c« Pi < D O H (^ Oh o w 1-1 Hi Q W CJ 0. I, Dec. 2, urious Fact," o o .5.2 ;- o 'cj o 6 ■A n. He wrote this find on S. G. 3 i .^P5 is o o S8 "3 rt Q OO collier took it home in his "snap" bag. 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O rt O o to Ph C3 Si o fin m ^ v„00 a t-i •-a OO Cfi a D rt .£ rt rt 3 "u O ^^ -i O rt >-' Ji rt O o 1L> P O s OO 00 00 V to u o a o O 00 00 -V2 00 00 00 r^ a n ^ •1—1 «> o UJ a, tn tn 13 r^ ii rt OJ a > o a ^ tU tn o a o 13 a rt tn ^ m •a 4 >• w» s a (L> t/) u J* tr T3 ~. 15^ 1 43 rt tn 13 rt tn 1-i o ' ^ rt in a 43 m :a rt k4 11) "*"* '^ a rt rS f-; o rt tn tJ3 o Tn a tn r! ty o 1 tU o O 2 s > rH ■ 44 rt tU 43 tn O 1-i 1 13 1) ^ rt O 13 rt ^ 43 a tn rt s 43 3 3 43 l2 X "a 13 rt tn in tn a a ■43 U o >^ <*H D ?^ a tfi damaged specimens of F. machaon and F. podalirius, flying round the ruins. A month before, they had been abundant there and in fine condition. Both these species have a particular fancy for flying round ruins, and high rocky places. I have seen both in dozens flying, and chasing one another round the ruins at Drachenfels. In England, Machaon is found only in the Fens, and in Germany its food-plants do not, so far as I could discover, grow anywhere near the spots it seems most to delight in. I saw one damaged holly blue {F. argiolus), and between the Heiligenberg, and Engelswiese, I took two V. C-albums, and one Polychloros. I also saw a good many Athalias, and several specimens of Z. sinapis. When we reached the Engelswiese, we could not find any Arions, but we got five splendid fresh specimens of that brilliant little insect, the scarce copper (Z. Virgaurea) and we caught sight of a fine Sibylla, which, however, escaped us. We now resolved to go on to a large meadow,, which lies high up in the forest, above the village of Ziegelhausen, and which had been a sort of happy hunting ground to us for some time past, and where> a few days before, we had seen Aglaia and Athalia in profusion. On our way thither, I saw several plants of the yellow fox-glove {Digitalis grandijlora), and a fine clump of the pretty liliaceous plant {Anthericiun 88 HARD WICKK S S CIENCE- G O SSIF, ramostini), this being the only spot near Heidelberg in which I have ever seen that species. We also saw a very fine campanula — I am not cer- tain of its specific name, but I think it is C. piiUa — it is about two feet high, the flower solitary, and as large as a small egg-cup, the foliage almost linear and the colour bright blue. The headquarters of this species are, apparently, the higher part of the Black Forest, for I have seen it in great quantities near Donaueschingen, where, however, the flower varied in colour between quite white and dark blue. A. adiantum-nigru7ii and A. tricJiomanes were plentiful in one part of our route. Four or five years ago, I found fronds of the latter nearly sixteen inches long at the same spot, but the plants that had pro- duced them, were gone last summer. As we were walking along through the wood, a butterfly, which at the time I took for A. iris, suddenly flew up, from some horse droppings that lay in the road. I was quite close to it, but was so surprised that I failed to net 'it. We stopped a few minutes hoping it might return, but we saw no more of it, though a school-boy the very next day took five per- fect specimens of A. ilia off" the same droppings : he got them in about an hour. After a time, the path left the wood, and ran along the top of a meadow, that had just been cleared of kay. We could see a lightish coloured butterfly flapping along, rather feebly, about a hundred yards away. This, my companion, who was young and active, soon netted, and it turned out to be a freshly hatched specimen of Galatea, the first of the season. We could not see any more, and I think the rest of the brood must have been carried away in the chrysalis state, with the hay, for I never saw any more galateas near that spot, though 'they were common, almost everywhere, a little later on. To reach our destination, we now had to turn due north, up a valley that lies at right angles with the Neckar, the path— a grassy lane — runs alongside the forest, which is on the left, and on the right there is a hedge, beyond which is a narrow valley of meadow land with a stream at the bottom. There was plenty of honeysuckle in the wood and hedge, and some weeks before I had fixed on that spot as a safe find for Sibylla, when the proper time came, and sure enough, in our progress through the lane, we saw at least a dozen of these elegant butter- flies, some floating in and out of the woods, others flying high and settling out of reach, and others resting on the bramble blossoms (for which this species has a great predilection) and off which we managed to cap- ture about half a dozen mostly in good condition, though to obtain really fine specimens the insect should be bred up from the caterpillar. Just before the path ends, the hedge on the right terminates, and the meadow lies open to the lane. We walked just into the meadow, and after looking across it for a few minutes, without at first seeing anything worth going after, we both caught sight of a dull blue butterfly about fifty yards away. The grass being still uncut, I hesitated, but M. dashed after the insect, regardless of the grass, and of the mowers who were in sight, and succeeded in netting a fine fresh specimen of Arion, the first I had ever seen alive. I may add that we did not find any more that day, though I had the pleasure of taking three at the Kohlhof two days afterwards, but I had too the morti- fication of then missing the only Lathonia I ever saw on the wing. It was too quick for me, though not for M., who chased, and was fortunate enough to catch it. On reaching the meadow we were bound for, M. at once jumped down a rather steep bank into it. He alighted close to a small oak bush, from which, what I took for another A. iris flew up ; after alighting on the oaks near by two or three times, and flying round again and again, it at length returned to the very spot whence it had started, and had scarcely settled before M. secured it. I then saw that it was not Iris but Ilia. We now turned our attention to the meadow. Aglaia was in profusion, and we could have caught them by the hundred, had we been inclined. I secured one Adippe, at least I took it at the time for that species, though I am now doubtful whether it was not Niobe, which is, I believe, more common in Germany than Adippe, and M. got two Paphias. Athalii was in abundance, but we had taken all we wanted several days before. There were still a few silenes and euphrosynes to be seen, but it was almost sad to look at these shabby and shattered insects, and remember that these were the same bright little beings which we had seen dancing so gaily in the sun two or three short weeks ago. We were fortunate in obtaining three more males and one female of Virgaurea, the latter a splendid specimen, together with a few of T. pricni, all in fine condition ; I also got a pair of H. fticiformis. I was surprised, as well as pleased, to find two patches of the beautiful Arnica montana in the meadow, and quantities of Orchises in three species, O. maculaia and O. conopsea, and H. bifolia, the first was very abundant and varied in colour, from almost white to purple. I have never seen the Arnica in any other German locality, though I suppose it would be found, in the higher parts of the Black Forest. On our way home, M. discovered a half-grown caterpillar of the puss moth, feeding on aspen, and I had the great pleasure of securing a large brood of caterpillars of V. antiopa, consisting of more than a hundred individuals. I reared them all, except one or two that met with accidents, and they all hatched out safely, after remaining in the pupa state thirteen or fourteen days. I had previously made many fruit- less searches for the larvoe of this fine species and had almost come to despair of meeting with it, though I knew that the perfect insect occurred in plenty at HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. 89 Heidelberg. These were feeding on the broad-leaved sallow. Ichneumons seem to be singularly capricious in their attacks on the larvoe of the Vanessidre ; not one of these hundred of Antiopas had been attacked, though of two large broods of V. xantliomeles (very like polychloros) which I found (also on willow) three- fourths had been " struck," and more than half of all the los I got, were in a similar plight. During the day, I saw several large spotted wood- peckers, and two or three common buzzards. The shrill querulous cry, of these last, as they sweep round in graceful curves, often at such a height as to be almost invisible, though their cry is still distinctly audible, must always attract the attention of the naturalist. For my part I was never tired of watching ithe elegant flight of these beautiful birds. r: b. p. Juistlnmrnc. OUR SCIENTIFIC DIRECTORY. [The Editor will be obliged, if, for the benefit of his numerous readers, secretaries of scientific societies will send notices like the following, also place and time of meeting.] "ryURY (Lane.) Liter-ary and Scientific Society: JLJ President, Rev. Douglas Walmsley, B.A. ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. Thomas K. Holden, Blackford Bridge, Bury, Lane. Nottingham Naturalists' Society: President, W. J. Abel, B.A., F.R.M.S. ; Hon. Secretary, W. Hanley Kay, Gresham Chambers, Beastmarket Hill. The Practical Naturalists'' Society : President, S. Robinson Hallam, F.R.M.S. ; Hon. Secretary, G. K. Gude, 5 Giesbach Road, Upper Holloway, London, N. The Penarth Entomological Society : President, Mr. J. Wallis ; Hon. Secretary, G. A. Birkenhead, Downs View, Penarth, near Cardiff. Meetings are held on the second Tuesday evening in each month. Norwich Science-Gossip Club: President, John Bidgood, B.Sc. ; Hon. Secretary, Frank Balls. Petherton Microscopical Society: Founded 1882. j\Ieets third Thursday in month at 80 Petherton Road, Highbury New Park, N. ; excursions on third Wednesday. Museum and library. President, Bernard H. Woodward, F.G.S. ; Hon. Secretary, D. Mottram. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Thanks to strict preservation, and to the fact that the inhabitants are realising the value of the bird, the eider has greatly increased in number in Iceland during recent years. The people do all in their power to attract the bird to their property. Among these attractions are bells worked by the wind or by water, the hanging up of dress material of a glaring colour, and the keeping of brightly-coloured fowls. A society has been formed for the granting of premiums for the killing of animals preying upon the eider, and last year I155 such prizes were awarded. The Secretary to the Committee on Science and the Arts of the Franklin Institute asks us to make it knownito our readers that the Committee is empowered to award, or to recommend the award, of the following medals, &c., for meritorious discoveries and inventions tending to the progress of the arts and manufactures :' (l) The Elliot Cresson medal, gold; (2) The John Scott legacy and premium and medal, twenty dollars and a medal of copper. For further information, application should be made to the Secretary, The FrankUn Institute of the State of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. At the Brockley and St. John's Scientific Society (late New Cross Microscopical and Natural History Society), a lecture on "Crabs, Lobsters and Shrimps," was delivered at the St. John's Church Room, Lewis- ham High Road, on the 7th February, by W. J. Spratling, Esq., B.Sc, F.G.S. The development of the Crustaceans was explained, and exemplified by Trilobites found in the Cambrian Rock, Palaeozoic and Secondary and Tertiary Rocks up to the crabs of the present day. The lecture was illustrated by photographic slides, which were shown by means of the society's oxyhydrogen lantern. Nickel and Cobalt.— In reply to a query in the March number of Science-Gossip as to the reported decomposition of nickel and cobalt, the following facts may be of interest. The task which Dr. Kriiss set himself was the determination of the atomic weights of nickel and cobalt ; and for this purpose he employed Winkler's process. Having accurately determined the atomic weight of gold, a definite quantity of nickel or cobalt was treated with a solution of gold chloride and the precipitated gold weighed. As the amount of this gold varied, without any apparent cause, after eliminating possible sources of error, the gold itself was examined. After being dissolved in nitro-hydro- chloric acid and reprecipitated, it was found that it had lost weight, and that the washings were coloured. These washings when concentrated were found to eive reactions characteristic of none of the metals operated upon, so Dr. Kriiss endeavoured to obtain larger quantities of the unknown material ; and ultimately he found that by igniting fresh oxide of either nickel and cobalt with potassium hydrate, and washing out the mass, he got a solution containing two or three per cent, of a substance with the characters of none of the substances operated upon, while the pure oxide of nickel or cobalt was left. From this solution a white oxide was obtained, and from this by means of blow-pipe and charcoal was obtained a brown malleable metallic powder, soluble in hydrochloric 90 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. acid ; the solution afforded reactions not characteristic of any known rnetal, this brown powder was accord- ingly inferred to be a new element. Further investi- gation has shown that the oxide resembles alumina and zinc oxide, though it distinctly differs from both ; the amount obtainable from nickel oxide is about one from fifty. Further investigations are in progress ; and I believe that up to the present time (March ist) the new substance has not been named, — Arthur W. Harrison, ]Vestminstcr Hospital, S. W. We are sorry to have to announce the death of the Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A., F.L.S., &c. the popular science lecturer and writer, who died suddenly on Sunday, March 2nd, at Coventry. The Rev. J. G. Wood was at one time a frequent contributor to our columns. He was born in London, in 1827, where his father followed the profession of surgeon : and finished his education at Merton College, Oxford, where he was elected Jackson scholar. On leaving college, he became chaplain at St, Bartholomew's Hospital. Amongst the deceased gentleman's most important works are "Natural History," "Insects at Home," "Insects Abroad," "Homes without Hands," and numerous others. Perhaps no writer has more thoroughly influenced the minds of young people towards natural history than Mr. Wood. Two other old contributors to Science-Gossip have recently died, both of them well-known botanists : Professor the Rev. Churchill-Babington, of Cockfield near Bury St. Edmunds ; and Mrs, Merrifield, of Brighton, There is a capital portrait, and an equally good biograpical sketch, of Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., &c., in the March number of " Research." "The Naturalist" for February contains a capital paper, on the " Bibliography of the Geology and Palaeontology of the North of England, 1887," by S. A. Adamson and A, Harker. This the fourth annual list is very exhaustive, and contains many names of men of note as well as those of humbler pretensions. MICROSCOPY. The Royal Microscopical Society.— No. 67A of the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society contains the title-pages, index, &c., for 1888. No. 68, besides the summary of current researches, contains the following papers : " Observations on the Special Internal Anatomy of Uropoda Krameri," by Albert D. Michael; "List of Desmids from Massachusetts, U.S.A.," by Wm. West; "Reproduction and Multiplication of Diatoms," by the Abbe Count F. Castracane. ZOOLOGY. The Darts of the IlELiciD.^i. — Replying to the query of C. A. W, in Science-Gossip for February, the darts are to be found in the helicidse all the year round. In specimens which have been long hybernating the dart does not present that firm appearance it would at any other time, and is more likely to be overlooked. I think if your correspondent boils the dart sacs in a solution of caustic potash, he will find that the majority of specimens have darts. The following table shows the percentage possessing darts out of a number of dissections I have lately made from hybernating specimens : — Species. No. of Specimens. Helix pomatia , , aspersa „ minora lis , , riifcsceiis 5 15 II 20 Number pos- sessing Darts. 5 12 9 20 — IV. E. Colliiige, Blenheim Place, Leeds. Darts, — It would be interesting to know where C. A, W, procured his " dartless " H. aspersa ; Early in the summer of 18S8 Mr. Standen and myself examined a number of mature shells of the same species, collected on the coast near Blackpool, with- out finding a single dart. This is all the more remarkable, because specimens of H. nemoralis collected at the same place and time yielded a large percentage of darts. Early in December, I received a' large quantity of H. aspersa from Ross, Hereford- shire, taken from their winter quarters. About sixty per cent, had darts. About the same time I dissected twenty-four hybernating H. pomatia, all these, or a hundred per cent, had perfect darts. On Feb. 2nd, 1889, I examined four species of Helix, all hybernating, with the following results. — From one H. hispida I got two darts (there are only four species having two darts each), from four H. virgata I got three darts. Four specimens each oi H. caperata and lapicida all had perfect darts. This proves, without doubt, the dart is present at all seasons of the year, provided the sheet is full grown. Perhaps the sheets examined by C. A. W. were immature ? — W. H. Heatluotc, M.C.S., Preston. Love Darts in Snails. — I have only just seen the note of C. A. W. on page 44 of the February number of SciENCE-GossiP, asking me to help him over his difficulty, relative to his not finding darts in the hibernating specimens of Helix aspersa he has examined. I have found darts in various degrees of development in hibernating //. aspersa, but I am not going to state that they are invariably to be found in hibernating specimens, for during hibernation all metabolism in the animal is in abeyance, and possibly HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 91 those I dissected out were formed previously to hibernation. If the animal has had the need to use his dart previous to hibernation, I do not think it feasible on physiological grounds that another will be formed to replace it during the quiet and slow physiological state of hibernation. He will doubt- less have no difficulty in finding darts, if he will examine some specimens in spring, for then anabolic processes are at their greatest development, and it is wonderful to note with what rapidity they are produced by the secreting activity of the cells at the posterior end of the lumen of the dart- sac (fundus) ; for C. Arndt, in a paper entitled " Entwicklung des Pfeils bei Ildix 7icino}'alis" in Arch. Ver. Mecklenb. xxxii, pp. 87-95, states that he has found the dart of Helix neiiioralis to be repro- duced within a week. It is interesting to note in this place, the various abnormal situations in which one finds a dart during dissection. I have several times dissected darts out of the connective tissue around the receptaculum seminis, an abnormal place for them, to which I believe Lloyd ]\Iorgan, in his "Animal Biology," refers, and during the last Christmas holidays, my friends Mr. George Mellors and Mr. A. Paling found one in the crop of a Helix aspersa. — J. W. Williams. Pallas Sand Grouse in Worcestershire. — On December 29th, a farmer shot in this parish two males and two females out of a flock of five. I have not seen any record of the previous occurrence of this species in this county. — K. D. Cofton. The Senses of Insects— have l^een made the subject of speculation during the course of a late address to the Entomological Society of London, by Dr. David Sharp. With regard to the notions of foreign comparative anatomists on this and cognate subjects there is, of course, a fine field of research in the rooms of the Linnean Society of London, where any moderate linguist may sit and sip the flowers of philosophy very enjoyably. But while thus occupied let us never fail to mark, learn, and inwardly digest. Now in order to controvert the Mosaic theory of Johannes Miiller promulgated about sixty years ago, that the picture in the insect's eye is composed of a large number of separate pieces, the Doctor— and may we suppose also Sir John Lubbock ? whose views are similar — held that the picture formed on our retina is flat, and that consequently any ideas of capacity we may possess are the results of mental experience. Let us put this assertion to a crucial test. Suppose at the present moment I am thinking of nothing and you are thinking of nothing. Now I see a man, and not allowing the idea of a man access into my thoughts, I shut one eye and look at him with the other. For the life of me I cannot suppose that he is flat, and so I open the two. If I ever before could fancy that he was otherwise, he most certainly has now capacity — Why is this ? Tlie images in our two eyes are different truly, and is it not likewise true that they are inclined at an angle to each other like an inverted v ? — A. H. Swinton. CORONELLA LiEVIS IN HAMPSHIRE. — It may interest some of the readers of Science-Gossip to know that I have had this rare snake brought to me from Hampshire. It is not uncommon on the continent from Norway to the southern parts, but it has been doubted to be a British reptile. I hope it has now really taken its abode here, for it is both harmless and useful. — A. J. Field, 43, liTedina Road, Finsbury Park, N. LiTT. RUDis V. siNiSTRORSUM. — With reference to this monstrosity, recorded last month from Wey- mouth, Mr. Marshall informs me that the specimens are full grown and belong to var. tenehrosa, Mont. I have now discovered four specimens in all — three of them being also scalariform. — B. Tomlin, Llaiidaff. Birds of Hampshire. — Having been asked by the Hants Field Club to compile a briefly annotated list of the birds of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, I should be glad to hear from any of your corre- spondents of the occurrence of rarities or the nesting of local species, such as the cirl bunting, wood lark, Dartford warbler, and raven, not necessarily for pubhcation. Our list contains about 280 species, notable absentees being the shore lark, Lapland bunting, and roseate tern.— y. E. Kelsall, Farekam. BOTANY. Alchemilla vulgaris in the South-East.— In answer to Mr. H, Lamb's inquiry, "Is Alchemilla vuharis rare in the south-east?" I reply, "Yes, decidedly so. It occurs in E. Sussex, in Surrey (about three stations are known), and it is reported for W. Kent in the "Journal of Botany," 1888, p. 311, by Mr. H. W. Mornington. In Middlesex it is more plentiful, and in some parts of Herts may be called common ; it also occurs sparingly in N. Essex. The station Mr. Lamb found Sonchjis palus- tris in has been known for some years, and been gathered from several times. I have seen specimens in several herbaria from thence. — Arthur Bennett. The South Wiltshire Flora.— Through the kindness of Mrs. Howard, of Ula, Colorado, I have been permitted to examine an interesting collection of plants, made recently in the neighbourhood of South Newton, near Salisbury. The species are mostly such as one finds in the chalky districts of Kent and Surrey, and include the following:— Aconitum 7tapelliis, Adonis autumnalis, Hippocrepis comosa, Anthyllis vulneraria, Atropa belladonna, Butomtcs iimbellatits, Sagittaria sagittifolia (R. Avon), Reseda lutea, Saxifraga granidata (Broken-bridges), Scutellaria galericnlata, Nepcla cataria, Impatiens 92 HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SI P. noli-me-tangere, Epilobium augiistifolmm, and Poly- gonattim 7nuUiJloriini. Comparing this with the Surrey list, Aconitum alone seems to be wanting in the latter county, and although found apparently wild, it is conceivable that the Wiltshire examples originated from some accidental introduction. — T. D. A. Cocker ell. Abnormal Growth of Plantago maritima. — I do not think the growth the Rev. Arnold names is very common ; I have seen a somewhat similar one at Hythe, in Kent, and less so in specimens gathered on the north coast of Norfolk. The late Mr. H. C. Watson had an analogous instance in Scilla nutans, with bracts two inches long, in his garden at Thames Ditton ; but in this case the flowers were merely larger, but unaltered in arrangement. — Arthur Bennett. Abnormal Growth of Bracts.— I have not seen the abnormal growth referred to by Mr. F. H. Arnold, but the involucral bracts surrounding the capitulum of a large specimen of the sunflower, grown here last summer, were nearly all developed into leaves, some of which were seven or eight inches ^o°g> giving the flower the appearance of resting on a cushion of leaves, all radiating from a common centre. — Ernest O. Meyers, Hoioislow. Monstrosity in Plantain. — The monstrosity of spikes of plantago, alluded to by Rev. F. H. Arnold, was observed a long time ago on PI. lanceo- lata and PI. major. A paper about it by Germain de St. Pierre may be found in " Bulletin de la Societe Botanique de France," 1857, p. 625. I do not think that the same case was ever observed on PI. maritima. — C. C, Dotdlens, Somme. Double Blossoming. — Trees and plants of various species blossoming twice in the same year are not unfrequent, and that phenomenon was studied and accounted for by W. de Schcenefeld and G. Maugin in "Bulletin de la Societe Botanique de France," 1859, pp. 37, 465. — C. C, DoiiUens, Somtne. Colorado Fungi. — I am having fairly good success with the fungi in Custer County this year, adding several species to my list. Mr. J. B. Ellis has been good enough to identify a number of species from this locality recently, and among them he finds Elaphomyces variegatus, Vitt. — a curious, yellowish tuber I found while digging an irrigation ditch ; Polyporus arcticiis, Fr. ; Dermatca pruinosa, E. and E., so named in ms., a probably new species ; Odontia Umbriata, Pers., on wood ashes; Puccinia bigelovia, on Bigelovia, another apparently new species, named by Ellis and Ever heart in ms.; ^cidiiim euphorbia:, Gmel., and Uromyces scutellatus, Schrank, growing together on Euphorbia montana, Engelm. — which is suggestive of their relationship ; yEcidium compo- sitaruni. Mart. ; and Oiditimmonilidides, Lk., on grass. Dr. W. G. Farlow has also named some Custer County specimens for me ; ^Ecidium vionaicumf Peck.; on Arabis, Hypocrea richardsoni. Berk, and Mont., on dead poplars {Populus tremuldides), Bovista circtimscissa. Berk, and Curt., and Polyporus biformis^ Kltz. And from Wellsville, in Fremont Co., " Corti- ciuni " setosum. Berk, and Curt, (ms.), which, however, is not a true corticium, the generic position being at present doubtful. — T. D. A. Cockerell, Wesi Cliff, Colorado. A Pale Variety of Ophion. — On October i7thy 1887, I took at Saguache, Saguache co., Colorado, a very remarkable-looking pale-yellow ichneumon of the genus Ophion, which I sent to Mr. W. H. Ash- mead, who says it is a pale variety of the common O. bilineatus of Say. I v/ill call it O. bilineatus var. pallida, and at the same time ask, do the British species of this genuo vary in a similar manner? I have captured or seen hundreds of them, and never saw any noteworthy variation in colour. — T. D. A, Cockerell, West Cliff, Colorado. Ophrys apifera again. — Glad to be able to- inform your readers that I have found this interesting plant again, and that it has not wholly deserted us. On Sunday, Feb. 24th, eight plants were growing where it was before its strange disappearance. Did it disappear? When first I saw the plant in this district in 1884, I dug up a specimen for my herbarium and detached the young tuber, which I planted in a pot, using for soil a piece of turf taken from the same spot. This tuber began to show leavea early in the autumn, and these leaves continued deciduous throughout the winter and early spring. When throwing up a spike, the root leaves began to decay. I had before noticed the decayed appearance of the leaves of the specimen I had dried, and have since noticed that generally when apifera is in bloom its leaves are more or less decayed. Now, 1st, do all tubers bloom the first year ? The one I reared did, though a small one, but it was a puny spike of two insignificant flowers. At the time, I thought that this was owing to its being grown in a pot, knowing that this family is, as a rule, rather averse to cultiva- tion. 2nd, If not, why may not the leaves have, owing to the overgrowth of surrounding plants, wholly decayed by June or July, the time apifera should be in bloom and the lime when botanists naturally look for it. In this case, the tuber would still be there, but no outward appearance would' betray its presence. It would be a good plan to- ■search spots frequented by this fast-becoming rarity, in the early spring-time, and see whether these observations are correct. I say spring-time, because then the herbage is short and the glaucous green leaves would show -plzAnly.— John Taylor, Fairford, Gloucestershire. Botany and Punctuation. — Will you allow me space to correct a few errors in the printing of my HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIF. 93 paper on the Wye Valley plants (p. 68) ? By the inser- tion of two semicolons and the transposition of a word, Valeriana sambucifolia is made to " climb over bushes ; " and the Chrysosplenium to grow on a tree ; instead of which Stellaria jt?)ibrosa was the climber, and the navelwort the parasite. Euphorbia " striata''^ is a misprint for stricta. While upon this subject, may I add the following ? In the vicinity of Blakeney, in the Forest of Dean, Hypintm atro-virens was growing, a moss which I thought to be confined to the summits of a few Scotch mountains. Can any of your Gloucestershire readers inform me if this is frequent in such low-lying districts ? — H. W. Monin^ton. NOTES AND QUERIES. Sense of Smell. — With all due deference to Mr. Woodroffe Hill, I should somewhat doubt the ability of even a well-trained blood-hound to track a criminal in a crowded thoroughfare. What it might be able to do at an hour when there would be little or no traffic is a different matter. A bloodhound might be staunch on the trail of a nigger and not swerve even were it crossed by a white man, but supposing other niggers were to touch upon the trail of the man on whom it was first laid, would it not be very likely to follow up the freshest scent? Let us imagine a bloodhound following the footsteps of a bloodstained murderer, and for some unfortunate who had freshly cut himself, to cross the former's track ; would the hound be able to distinguish between the innocent and the guilty, and with some subtle sense discover a difference in the odour of the two men's boots ? We have in this locality some splendid specimens of the old southern hound bred by Squire Brook, the master of the Boxhill Harriers, as staunch as hounds can be, and yet I have even seen them change their hare. Might not a blood- hound be as liable to make the same mistake as regards his man, in a populous town ? — W. E. Windus, Boxhill. Gossip about Foraminifera.— The author of the above paper states that he is an " expounder of curious facts." He then informs us that the sponges form a group of animals in class Rhizopoda ! The nomenclature is not reliable, as for instance, he quotes Geopomis stella-borealis, the name given by Ehrenberg in 1839 to the PolystomellastriatopimctaUts named in 1803 by Frihtel and Moll. The figure of Entosolenia squamosa is imaginary, the cavities depicted should be imbrications. — Frederick Chat- man. Earwigs.— The Rev. J. G. Wood, in his " Insects Abroad," says (page 277) : " There is a great difficulty about their scientific name." He is writing about the earwigs. " By some they are called Dermaptera, i.e. 'skin winged,' because their elytra are soft and leathery. ... By others they are termed Euplexoptera, or 'beautifully-folded wings,' ... as if to add to the perplexity, some entomologists have given the name of Dermaptera to the grasshoppers, cockroaches, crickets, and other insects which are known under the title of Orthoptera. I cannot bring myself to acknowledge that this last-mentioned arrangement can be correct." Now let me cite out of Cuvier's " Animal Kingdom," edition 1834, vol. iii., p. 344: "In the sixth or the Orthoptera, there are six legs." As a footnote is added on the same page, " De Gerr established this order under the name of Dermaptera, improperly changed by Olivier to that of Orthoptera ; we preserve the latter, however, as naturalists have generally adopted it." And again in vol. iv. of the same edition, as a footnote, " M. Kirby had previously established under the denomination of Dermaptera," talking of Euplexoptera, but De Gerr's title has a seniority of some fifty years to Kirby's. Therefore ought not naturalists to call the Orthoptera, *' Dermaptera, "and the earwigs " Euplexoptera " ? But then the " Ulo- nata " of Fabricius have still older seniority. I have not yet seen a collection of grasshoppers, &c., labelled "Dermaptera," or " Ulonata." I should be very glad if some one would inform me on this subject. — Geo. IV. Kirkaldy. Nomenclature. — I have been rather puzzled about certain generic names, particularly in zoology. I have always read that two generic names, spelt the same, cannot be allowed, even though one be the title of a bird and the other a shell. The satin moth is called Liparis, and a shell fish is called Liparis. Echidna is the generic name both for the porcupine ant-eater, and for a Peruvian viper ; Acanthopus (Meg.) belongs to the heteromerous coleoptera ; Acanthopus (Kliig) belongs to the fam. Apida;. Again, I always thought seniority had priority, but ornithorhynchus (Blumenbach) is the generic name in use for the duck-billed platypus ; although platypus (Shaw) has seniority ; while platypus (Herbst.) is used for the coleopterous xylophagi. Herbst lived from 1743 to about 1800; Shaw lived from about 1760 to 1815 ; Blumenbach from about 1760 to 1830. I should also be obliged if some reader could inform me of a book (not more that 7^^. 6^.) about the com- parative anatomy of the vertebrates, particularly the dentition. — G. IV. Kirkaldy. Bearded Tit. — Whilst collecting mosses on the banks of the Ouse, near York, in November this year, I had the pleasure of watching the movements of one of these birds, a very rare species here. I had clambered along the trunk of an overhanging willow, when the bird alighted amongst the branches. I watched it hopping from twig to twig for some moments, within a few feet of my head, and have no doubt whatever of its identity. — J. A. Wheldon. The Great Sea Serpent. — I have just accom- plished the task of analysing and collecting over one hundred notices ancient and modern, true and fictitious, relating to the great sea-serpent. Balancing im- partially the resulting evidence, I am driven to the conclusion that it is a venerable sailor's yarn derived from ocular impression, while, quite apart from all other considerations, it is mainly impossible that a species of air-breathing serpent of such extensive dis- tribution should lie at the bottom of the ocean and be so Seldom seen ; and its most ardent champions have never fully, I think, realised this circumstance, (.liant squids or calamars, distinguished from our better known cuttle fish by their cylindrical bodies, have existed from all antiquity on the ocean beds all over the world where the fish on which they prey abound. The tentacular arms of these squids attain an enormous length, and hence has originated a story of the great sea serpent. American naturalists have but quite lately given their attention to the giant squids of the Newfoundland banks and secured specimens for their museums ; they have come to be known generally as Architeuthis, but as regards the species and general classification oftheir kind we have 94 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. probably everything to learn. When it is considered how poorly represented great oceanic monsters are in museums everywhere, our ignorance is not to be marvelled at ; the arch of heaven has been their home, and we have possessed no house wherevvithalto compose a walhalla for their skin and bones. — A. H. Swinion. A CURIOUS tale comes from Wellington, New Zealand. Alexander McGowan, a man engaged in the harbour improvement works, was under the water setting some blocks, into which some piles had been driven. Whilst doing so he was seized by an immense octopus, which at the same time fastened on to one of the piles. The man attempted to free himself, but finding that the more he struggled the tighter the octopus gripped, he desisted. The creature immediately let go of the pile. In response to his signals McGowan was quickly drawn up still in the tight embrace of the monster, which was at once killed. Its limbs were measured and found to be about nine feet long. These monsters are said to be common in the harbour. Practical Naturalists' Society. — This society recently held a conversazione in Essex Hall. The musical programme was successfully carried out, and numerous lantern transparencies sent by Mr. Riley Fortune, from Harrogate, were displayed during the evening, but the chief fea- ture was the exhibition of Natural History objects. Fourteen microscopes occupied a large table in the centre of the room. Conspicuous in this department was Mr. Fred Enock, F.E.S., who exhibited beauti- fully-mounted slides, including specimens of the Hessian Fly, the life history was minutely explained by his "sketches." Extensive collections of skins, nests, and eggs of British birds and British land and freshwater shells, sent by Mr. F. R. Fitzgerald, covered the greater part of the tables. Miss Fisher Brown contributed marine shells and seaweeds from the Bahamas, and nest of trap-door spiders from Jamaica. There were also foreign and British coleoptera, shown by Mr. A. J. Field ; Lepidoptera, shown by Mr. R. Oakeshott ; dried plants, diaj^rams, and a further collection of British land and freshwater shells, shown by Mr. J. K. Gude. Mr. R. B. Postans, of Eastbourne, sent a collection of Hint implements from the Sussex Downs ; Mr. W. Allen, flakes from Kent, and Mr. A. Ramsay specimens of Eozoon cana- dense. One of the most conspicuous objects in the room was a Neptune-cup, two feet high, sentiby Mrs. Dyer, of Swansea. Live salamanders and cray-fish were shown by Mr. C. H. Whitlow, who also contributed vipers, grass-snakes and slow-worm in spirits. Water-colour drawings of animalcula, by Mr. Jno. Eyre, were ad- mired. An address was delivered by Mr. A. Ramsay. The Ramsgate Well. — There are a few ephemeral wonders at Ramsgate. A strange fish, the Squatina or Angel fish, I believe, is paraded in a barrow, now and again ; a hen lays a large egg some- where on the coast, or a more or less striped donkey puts in an appearance, and Ramsgate milk resem- bling chalk and water is at least singular, a standing marvel. But the excursionists to Ramsgate mostly overlook a curiosity remote but a few yards from the station of the South-Eastern Railway, whose origin clouded in mystery, might afford them something horrid to dream about. I allude to an antique well, over one hundred and thirty feet deep, which has been laid bare in section during the excavation of a huge square chalk pit from whence colliers trading to the port are ballasted. The bore of the well is smooth and ovate-oblong, two feet nine across the greater axis, and notches are cut from its top to its bottom at intervals of a foot, by which a sailor or monkey might make the perilous descent ; which has doubtless often terminated fatally, since some baskets full of bones have been gathered at its bottom, where is a step or ledge, doubtless often reached sooner than anticipated. The covering stone to the well mouth may yet be seen, it is a perforated piece of sand-stone from the neighbouring greensand forma- tion, and a similar, shallower well, has been exposed in section in the same quany. If more recent than the golden hours when Cuthbert, Farley, and EJgar Farless hurdled their nibbling sheep among the thorns and maiden hollys, these wells in their singular Roman bore at the least claim a greater antiquity than the elegant Margate shell grotto which displays a damnable pointed arch. — A. H. Swintoti. A Hare at Sea.— In "Nature" for January 17, 1889, is an account of a hare taking to sea, and the following will show how readily the hare will take to the water when in danger. On a small strip of land running some little distance into the sea on the Island of Cumbrae, I surprised a hare on the extreme point. The animal seeing that it could not pass me safely, plunged into the sea, which was calm at the time, and swam well till it reached the shore. It may be a question whether when hard-pressed it has not a suicidal propensity. A few years ago when at Stromness, I was informed by an old farmer that his dog started a hare which made all speed to a neighbouring loch, the loch was frozen over at the time, with the exception of one of those holes frequently met with to which the hare ran straight and plunged into it. The dog followed, and both were drowned. On another occasion, many years ago, a hare found its way into Glasgow Green, a dog soon got sight of it and was immediately in pursuit. The hare went bounding to the River Clyde, and. sprang into the water and the dog plunged in after it. The hare swam better than the dog, and would have reached the other side safely, only for the people on the opposite bank who were looking at the chase. The hare, seeing its escape in that direction ob- structed, turned down stream, this gave the dog some advantage, still the hare was more than a match for the dog. A young man, a little way down the river, seeing that the hare might have some chance of saving its life, plunged in before it ; the poor animal seeing escape hopeless, dived under the water and was seen no more. — David Robertson, Fernbank^ Millport, Isle of Citvibrae. Poisonous Plants. — A friend lately sent me a copy of the "Standard" newspaper, containing a paragraph headed as above, describing several cases of cattle poisoned in the South of England, by their browsing on the foliage of the lesser spearwort {Rammcubis flaninmld). On the margin of Dud- dingston Loch, near Edinburgh, this plant is growing in great abundance along with its relations, the great spearwort {R. lingua), celery-leaved crowfoot {R. sceles-atus), upright crowfoot (R. acris), and creeping crowfoot (R, repciis). In the same locality, we have among the Umbelliferffi, whose herbage is often poisonous, the water parsnip (Siitni angiisti- foliuiii), marshwort {Helosciadium nodifloriim), white- rot {Ilydrocotyle 'Oiilgaris), and on the dry portion, fool's-parsley {yEthiisa cyniapiwii), and the hemlock {Coniiini inaadatiim). Now the margin of the loch has from time immemorial been used as a pasture for cows, and no case, such as noticed in the "Standard," has been observed. I would suggest that Ergot may be at the root of the mischief. It has been found by investigation where ergotised pastures HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 95 abound the fatal disease among sheep called Loupin- ill is very prevalent. The exceptional humid summer we experienced conduced to the development of various parasitic fungi, — J/. King. Mildness of the Winter.— To show the mild- ness of the winter about Colchester, two specimens of Btifo vulgaris, which I kept last year with several other amphibians in an outdoor vivarium, came out of the heap of leaves and rubbish in which they had hybernated and moved about the place on the 31st December. The sun was shining, and the atmosphere was very warm, which I suppose was the cause of their appearing. They have, however, gone back again now that the weather has turned cold. — Frederick S. Croydon. Pied Wagtail. — Whilst walking through a thickly populated part of the town yesterday morning, I noticed this bird picking amongst the snow in com- pany with three sparrows ; is it not unusual for this bird to be seen in towns ? — F. H. Thompson. The New Metal. — Concerning the new metal ■discovered by Dr. Kruss in Cobalt and Nickel little is known yet. It has not yet been named, but will probably soon be so. Particulars of it, as far as yet published, will be found in a paper read by Dr. Kruss before the Munich Chemical Society, and quoted in "Nature," January 31, 1889, p. 325. Also see " Phar- maceutical Journal," January 19, p. 576 ; "Chemist and Druggist," January 26, pp. 104, 126 ; Febuary2, p. 168.—/'. //. Marsden. ACRIDIA VIRIDISSIMA. — Is it an unusual thing for the great green grasshopper of the south of Europe {A. viridissima) to be taken in England ? Several specimens of what I believe to be this insect have lately appeared in a conservatory at a florist's in this town ; one was brought to me alive, but I failed to keep it so for more than a few days, the comparatively cold temperature of the dining-room, the warmest apartment in the house, killing it. When brought near the fire it became quite lively ; but at other times it remained clinging to the side of its cage in a semi-torpid condition. I could not induce it to feed. Another specimen, a dead one, also came into my possession. The larger one measures upwards of three and a half inches from the head to the end of the ovipositor, and two inches from the head to the end of the closed wings. The ovipositor is about two inches in length. The insects are of a bright emerald green tint, with a whitish blotch at the base of the face. — A. E. Gibbs, F.L.S,, Si. Albans. Beavers in Bute. — In 1872, the Marquis of Bute informed me that he wished to procure some beavers, &c. Frank Buckland, "Notes and Jottings of Animal Life," page 27. — G. IVorledgc, Woodbridge. The Bute Beaveky.— I note in replies to cor- respondents last month " B. B. Le T. " wishes for information about the Bute beavery. There is a good account of it in the "Midland Naturalist," (pp. 100, 161), vol. v., by Mr. Egbert de Haniel ; perhaps this will meet the requirements of your correspondent. — G. Sheriff Tye, NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un- dertake to insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We must adhere to our rule pf not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names. To C)ealers ano Others.— We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply Disguised AuvERTisEMiiNTs, for the purpose of evading the cost ol advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitoics insertion of " exchanges " which cannot be tolerated. We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or initials) and full address at the end. Special Note. — There is a tendency on the part of some exchangers to send more than one per month. We only allow this in the case of writers of papers. A. T. — Mr. Abbot's paper is from the " Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science," and is printed at the Salem Press, Salem, Mass. You could most probably get .Mr. Montague Browne's paper from the author. Town Museum, Leicester. EXCHANGES. Fine casts of two ammonites, in exchange for curios of foreign shells, either land or marine. Also curios to exchange. — Archibald Hy. McBean, S. Denys, Southampton. Wanted, good wings of foreign lepidoptera; must be cor- rectly named and localised. A large selection of unmounted material in exchange, or mounted objects. Send list to— R. M., 24 Park Road. Clapham, London, S.W. Small duplicate cjUection of land and freshwater shells, and a number of British birds' skins, in exchange for magic lantern slides, or offers. Lists sent. — Jas. Ingleby, Eavestone, near Ripon. Parasitic plants. Wanted, from all parts, Orobanchaceae (broom-rapes) and other parasites attached to host ulants ; fresh, in spirit, or dry. — J. Guardia, F.R.M.S., Helston House, Rozel Road, Clapham, London. Wanted, autograph letters of celebrated naturalists, in exchange for good botanical micro slides. — B. Piffard, Hill House, Hemel Hempstead. Wanted, a few specimens of hydroida or polyzoa, living, or mounted with the tentacles extended. Will exchange, or purchase. Write to— Rev. A. C. Smith, 3 Park Crescent, Brighton. Offered. — "Midland Naturalist," vols. vii. and viii. (1884, 1885), unbound, clean as new; "The Naturalists' World," vol. iv. U887), unbound; "Knowledge," vol. iv. (1883), five numbers missing, and other periodicals. Wanted, a vol. of Jeffreys' " British Conchology," rare British land, freshwater and marine shells, or offers. — A. Marshall, care of W. Handley Kay, Gresham Chambers, Nottingham. A HUNDRED rare rough Devon corals and sponges, in ex- change for the same number of good silurian or Yorkshire corals, to cut up for specimens. Also the following micro objects or British shells — Polysiomella crispa, Orbulites striata, Nmnmulites complanatus, various spines of echinus, minute corals and shells, perfect and rare sorts. Wanted, Pecien glaber, var. sulcata (Adriatic Sea), Anomta striata, lantkina- exigiia, I. rotundata, Lima hians, Tellina balaustina, Pecten nivens, Troclms gramilatus, and Einargimila fissura. — K. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth. Wanted, to exchange a few birds' eggs and Persian stamps for thoroughly good micro slides.— Miss Nicolson, 15 William Street, Albert Gate, S.W. SciENCE-GossiP, Feb. 1882 to June 1886; Owen's "Pale- ontology ; " a collection of over 1000 fossils. Offers wanted. — J. A. Floyd, 5 Hospital Road, Bury St. Edmunds. Offered. — Hudson and Gosse's "Rotifera" (perfectly clean copy, unbound), nine lantern slides, " Humorous Tale of a Cat," rock micro slide box, polished bay wood, to hold 144 slides. Wanted, lantern slides. Pen and Pencil series art journals. — J. E. Lord, iC Mount Terrace, Rawtonstall. Wanted, Bell's " British Quadrupeds," and any of the following of Reeve & Co.'s British Handbooks, viz. : " Butter- flies and Moths," "Spiders," "Grasses," "fi^erns," or other reference works on Fnglish natural history, in exchange for one or more of the following books, all in best condition, viz., vols. iv. and v. of "Science for All," "Scientific Recreations," "Midland Naturalist," 1883 and 1884 (2 vols.), Lubbock's "Ants, Bees, and Wasps" (uncut), "Contributions to Natural Hi-tory by a Rural D.D.," and Slack's "Pond Life."— F. Hayward Parrott, Walton House, Aylesbury. Vekv fine i-inch, by Scibert, 30° angle ; ditto by Swift, with short mount for binocular, and adapted for monocular, 70° angle, also good student's i-inch, about 90°, all corrected for pho.ography.— Dr. Bousfield, 363 Old Kent Road, S.E. Wanted a good serviceable microscope, one suitable for petrological work preferred. Offered, Jeryis' " Mineral Wealth of Central Italy;" "Curiosities of Animal Life; Woods "Common Objects of the 'Sea Shore;" Skertchly's "Physical 96 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Geography:" "New Monthly Magazine," circa 1820, 2 vols.; G. P. K. James's "Atiila" and "Richelieu;" "Japan, Past and Present;" Wolffs "Bokhara;" Staunton's "Embassy to China;" bag-ter's 'Greek Testament;" large quantity of maaa^ines a^id other books; capital collection of foreign stamps; Steward's 21^. microscope; quantity of minerals, rocks and fo-siU, S:c. — A. G. Hammond, 10 St. John's Hill, New V\'andswonh, S.W. Offered, b ck numbers of Science-Gossip, and Fowler's "British Coleoptera," part i., Adephaga-Hydrophilidae, nearly new. 'Wanted British fos-ils from various formations. — A. E. Bradley, 11 Bleisho Road, Lavender Hill, London, S.W. Offere , Science-Gossip from No. i to end of 1888. Wanted, Beck's stsr microscope, with or without accessories. — R. C. Pi ling. The Robi.i's Net, Blackburn. Twelve sections of w. od, six long and si.\ transverse, sent in exchange for two micro slides — acari or pathological pre- ferr-d. Also duplicates fjr exchange. — E. Mosely, 16 Robert- son Street, Hastings. Will exchange mummy cloth, sacred ibis, or crocodile bones, for mounted inspect dissections, nervous system preferred. — Capt. S.. The Hollies, Brastcd, Kent. Offered, five bound vols, of Scienxe-Gossip, 1865-9, and Cuvier's "Animal Kingdom," with over 200 well-coloured plates (10 X 14 in.). Wanted, "Zoologist," before 1888. What offers? — J. H. K., 18 Church Street, Commercial Street, K. Wanted, shells, fhiefly foreign, in exchange for choice micro slides, anatonacal, parasites, diatoms, &c. — R. Suter, 5 Highueek Road, Tottenham. Will exchange 4 voU. (unbound) of "Amateur Work," illus- trating almost any kind of handicraft, for works on geology.— P. J. Roberts, 4 shepherd Street, Bacup. Offerfd, coliiranHrcoal. Wanted, avicula, acrodus, arcomya, conus, cer.ttodus, eozoon, hipoopodium, hybodus, isocardia, labjrinthodon, mitra, mega'odon, oliva, perna, platystoma, ptychodus, sas, soa, unicrdium, vicarya, waldheimea, zellania, &c. — J. Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning. Wanted, Macgillivray's " British Birds," vol. iii. Offered, the "Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club," for the years 1870-73, in two volumes. — Apply to Dr. Fra^er, Wolverhampton. Fredk. Glknnv, of The Orchard, Wisbech, wishes some correspondent to give him the address where he can procure an apparatus f r preservir g larvae, and the price. Wanted, S ience-Gossip for May, 1869 (No. 53). 'Varieties of British shells offered, or Harting's " Rambles in Search of Shells."— W. Web ter. Lofthouse, Wakefield. Wanted, a Valentin's knife ; will give a writing diamond and some slides, or writ ng diamond and "Common Objects of the Mirrosr-ope," ■>,!. dd. ed. — George T. Read, 87 Lordship Road, Stoke Newingion, London, N. Good diatom n.icro slides in exchange for other diatom or miscellaneous mounts, or clean material. — Rev. E. A. Hutton, Mottram, Manchester. Duplicate ejigs. — Willow wren, long-eared owl, woodchat, ke^trel, sparrow hawk, Idpwing, sandpiper, snipe, quail, moor- hen, coot, carriun and hooded crows, swallow, sand-martin, martin, tree pipit, black, Arctic, common, and lesser terns, oh ffinch. bullfinch goldfinch, lesser redpoll, redstart, herring gull, B. H. gull, guilemot, razorbill, blue, cole, marsh, long, taded, and rre ted tits, green woodpecker, redshank, ptarmigan, and many others. Desiderata. — Spotted woodpecker, plovers, buntin, kittiw. ke, teal, widgeon, sheldrake, cormorant, shag, stork and rock doves, ortolan, creeper, reed warbler, cuckoo, dipper, nitihtjar, and others. Lists to — Arthur Hollis, Norton Street. Grant am, Lines. Wanted, Newma.i's " Butterflies and Moths," also vols, of " Entomologist," in exchange. — A. Nott, 75 Waterloo Road, S.E. Wanted, in exchange for Ahn's " German Method " (new), and " Grammaire dcs Grammaires " (nearly new), or fossils from Silurian, trias, or carboni'erous formations. Professor Clifford's " Common Sense of the Exact Sciences," or Sir John Lubbock's "Ants, Bees, and Wa-ps," both in the International Scientific Series. Pkacop^ caiidatus, from L. Ludlow, in exchange for trdobites from other formations.— James Marsden, Carlisle Street, Preston. What offers fur aqnarium or terrarium? It is also suitable for fern ca-e well made of strong zinc throughout, outside case to iuiiate ebony, lined with gold bead; size, 30 in. long, 22 in. deep, and 15 in. wide.— J. J. Edwards, 43 Calvert Road, E. Greenwich. Wantrd, bees, wasps, sawflies, and other insects in spirit ; micro slides in exchange.— Henry Ebbage, 344 Caledonian Ro d. London. Will exchange sooty terns for sets of eggs of any of the foilowinc siecie-: kestrel, sparrow hawk, goldcrest, stormy petreK. night ars, dippers, golden plover, eider duck, pintail ducu-, widgeon, raven, chough, common snipe, sandwich tern, cimmon gull, and many other species.— Capt. 'Voung, Radwell, Wcyn.onth. What offers in exchange for a Dutch specimen of the barn owl, the first known to be got in Scotland'/ Can give date and where it was found. W. Mathers, 16 Constitution Street, Aberdeen, Offered, instantograph camera, odd numbers of Science- Gossip, 200 moulds of great seals of England, thirty numbers of Cassell s "Sea," &c. Wanted, impressions from ancient seals, books a* out seals, ^nd British lepidoptera in any stage. — Tunley, 131 Power court Road, Landport. What offers for herbaiium, nearly 1000 specimens, beauti- fully preserved, many duplicates'?— I. K., 7 Castle Terrace, Broughty Ferry. Wanted, transverse section of earth worm (lumbricus), and redia and cercaria stages of liver duke (2?. kepaiicum). — Chas. A. Whati'Ore. Much Marcle, Gloster. Wanted, Grant Allen on "Colour of Flowers," Strasburger's "Practical Botany,' Hermann Muller's "Fertilization of Flowers," or any good standard works on botany. — Chas. A. Whatmore, Much Marcle, Gloucester. Wanted, foraminiferous material in exchange for other material or good micro slides. Also many duplicate slides to exchange for others. Send lists to — A. Earland, 3 Eton Grove, Dacre Park, Lee, S.E. What offers for sixty micro slides of silurian and carbon- iferous fos-ils, mourned and named. — Geo. E. East, jun., 241 Evering Road, Upper Clapton, N.E. Dui licatks — Sph. laciistre, P. cotitecta, glaber, dilataUis, spirorbis and albta, L. irjtncainla and glabra, Z. glaber, ^litidus and ftitiduliis, H, neiiwralts, /lortensis, arbtistormn , sericea, pisana and caperata, B. obscurus, and C. tridens. 1 will give ail the above shells, or "Naturalists' World" for 1886 and 1887, unbound, for a few specimens of H. lamellaia or Acme lineata. — Francis C. Long, 8 Cog Lane, Burnley, Lanes. For six slides, I will send about forty varieties of animal hairs, or will exchange for same number of unmounted objects. — Arthur H. Williams, Hythe. What offers for "A Ride Across a Continent," 2 vols. (Boyle); Page's "Camp and Cantonment," "Athens and the Morea," "China in 1857-58," "Campaigns in Afghanistan," "The Camicorn Mountains," "The Prairie Traveller," "Over the Sea,'' "Grammaire des Grammaires," "Eton Latin Gram- mar," " Children's Own French Book," " Boy's Own Paper " (vol. X.), Otto's " (Jerman Grammar," also Roger's fret-saw machine, and fretworkcd articles? — A. Ellis, Hull Road, Cot- tiukiha I , Hull, 'Vorks. For exchange, duplicate well-mounted slides of foraminifer.-* from sponge-s.ind, for bridiant scaled, unmounted, exofc curculio^, in good condition. — Edward H. Robertson, Wood • vjlle. Greenhouse Lane, Sheepscombe, near Stroud, Gloster. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. "A Dictionary of Photography for the Amateur and Pro- fessional Photographer," by E. J. Wall (London: Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld.). — "Transactions of Nottingham Natu- ralists' Society." — " The Naturalist in Siluria," by Capt. Maine Reid (London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co.). — " Vannin Sivar," published by the Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society. — "The Annals and Magazine of Natural History." — "The G.^rden." — "The Athensum." — " The Gardener's Chronicle." — "The Asclepiad." — " Journal of the Royal Micro - scopical Society." — "lieological INIagazine." — "Research." — "The Be^t Forage Plants," by Dr. F. G. Stebler and Dr. Schroter, translate 1 by A. McAlpine (London: David Nutt). — "TheCruibeof the Marchesa to Kamschatkaand New Guinea," by F. H. h. Guillemard (London: John Murray, 1889). — "The Entomologist." — " Cryptogamic Botany," by A. W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc , F.L.S., and George Murray, F.L.S. (London: Longmans, Green & Co.)— " Knowledge." — "Biblio- graphy of the Geology and Palaeontology of the North of England." — " The Century Magazine."— "The Amateur Photo- grapher."—" The Garner."— " The Naturalist."— Cassell's "Technical Educator." — " The Botanical Gazette." — " Bel- gravia." — "The Gentleman's Magazine." — " American Monthly Microscopical Journal."— " Wesley Naturalist,"— "The Mid- land Naturalist." — " Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes." — "The American Naturalist," &c. &c. Communications received up to the 14TH ult. from : E. H. R.— D. W. B.— E. G.— A. V.— W. W.— F. W. S.— C. P. _A. W.— J. W. D. K.-W. S. G.— R. C. P.— E. M.— C. E. L. — R. P.— A. P. C.-W. B. B.— T. D. A. C. (2).— J. T. H.— F. G.— J. W. W.— W. H.— A. C. S.— J. E. K.— A. F. R.— B. p. -J. I— R. M.— B. T.— R. T. B.— A. M.— P. H. M.— C. F. G.-H. G.— A. J. R. S.— F. H. T.-A. C. G. C— Miss N.— J. A. F.— W. M.— J. E. L.— F. H. P.— A. W. H.— A. S. H. - Dr. B.- P. J. R.— J. S.— A. E. B.- A. J. H. C— J. G.- J. T.— K. B— J. M.— R. S.— W. F. J.— E. A, H.— F. C. L.— G. E E.-T. S.-A. E.— J. K.— S. G.— A. G. H.— C. A. W.— W. M.— T. D. A. C— J. C— W. H. S.-Capt. Y. — H. E.— H. \V. M.— J. J. E.-A. W. N.— S. H.— A. H. W.. — E. H. R.-J. P. G.— A. T.— A. E.— B. H. W.-A. H. S.,. &c. &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 97 THE FLORA OF THE PAST. No. II. By Mrs. BODINGTON. ,HE Huronian age, succeeding the Lau- remian, seems to have been a dis- turbed and unquiet time, and gives no evidence of vegeta- tion except in cer- tain dark slates coloured with car- bonaceous matter. In the Cambrian, a great subsidence of our continents be- gan, which went on with local intermis- sions all through Siluro-Cambrian times. Certain im- pressions on old Cambrian rocks in Sweden, present very plant-like forms, and received from the Swedish geologist Linnarrson the name of Eophyton, or Dawn-plant. They are wanting, however, in any trace of carbon- aceous matter, and Sir J.-, W. Dawson thinks they seem to be rather the grooves or marks cut in clay by the limbs or tails of some aquatic animal, and after- wards filled up and preserved by succeeding deposits. The same remarks apply to many supposed traces of plants, which, under close examination, appear to be only the burrows or trails of worms and crustaceans. A frond of sea-weed is closely imitated by the trail of the modern king-crab. The oldest plant, of whose genuine vegetable nature Principal Dawson has no doubt, was presented to him by Dr. AUeyne Nichol- son, of Aberdeen, and has been named Protannularia. It was found in the Skiddaw rocks of Cumberland, and shows traces of a graceful reed-like form with whorls of terminal leaves. It is allied to the modern Rhizopods, of which an account will be given further on. Only two other traces of genuine No. 293. — May 1889. plants have been found in the Siluro-Cambrian. In the Upper Silurian strata, the evidences of land vegetation somewhat increase. Amongst these early plants is one of extraordinary interest, for it seems to be a survival of those Tree Sea- Weeds, whose remains may have contributed to form the Archaean beds of graphite. It appears to be one of the un- varying laws of evolution that the lower organisms tend, in the absence of competition with higher forms, to attain immense proportions. Such, for instance, were the Eurypterids, the giant crustaceans of Upper Silurian times, when fish were few and small ; the huge newts of the coal forests, before the advent of reptiles ; and the terrific reptiles of the Lias, which far exceeded in size any land animals that have existed since. So, too, we have the giant club- mosses and horse-tails of the coal-forests, before the appearance of the higher plants. We might there- fore easily have imagined a sea-weed tree, before the days even of club-mosses and horse-tails, but it is in- finitely more interesting to have the fossil remains of such a plant. Sir J. W. Dawson has named this strange fossil Nematophyton. In 1870, he was shown some spore- cases or seeds from the Upper Ludlow beds (Silurian) of England, which Sir Joseph Hooker had described as Pachytheca. In the same slabs v/ere found fragments of fossil wood, identical with a fossil tree from the Devonian or Lower Erian of Gaspe, New Brunswick, described by Sir J. W. Dawson as early as 1859. The wood of this singular tree shows a tissue of long cylindrical tubes, like slender hair-like worms in vertical section, and traversed by a com- plex network of thinner-walled and smaller-sized tubes. The trees were of large size, with a coaly bark, and large spreading roots ; the stem being smooth or irregularly ribbed, and having a jointed appearance. Professor Penhallow, of McGill University, was asked to examine Nematophyton, and part of his report is as follows : — ' ' The structure of Nematophyton as a whole, is unique ; there is no plant 98 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. of modern type to which it is comparable. The primary structure consists oflarge tubular cells without apparent termination, and devoid of structural mark- ings. The loose character of the entire structure, the interminable cells, their interlacing, and finally their branching into a secondary series of smaller filaments, point with considerable force to the true relationship of the stem, as being with Algce or other Thallogens." Sir J. W. Dawson adds : " When we consider that Nematophyton was a large tree, sometimes attaining a diameter of two feet, and a stature of at least twenty before branching ; that it had great roots, and gave off large branches, and that it was an aerial plant, probably flourishing in swampy flats ; that its seeds are so large and complex, as hardly to be regarded as mere spores, we have evidence that there were, in this early Paleozoic period, plants scarcely dreamt of by modern botany." Many other fossil impressions, some of doubtful origin, some of genuine Algae, have been found belonging to this period, showing that the old Cambrian and Silurian seas were tenanted by sea- weeds not very dissimilar to those of the present time ; also we have traces of primaeval Rhizocarps and Lycopods, which can be better treated of in describing the vegetation of the succeeding Devonian age. In the Devonian age, or as Sir J. W. Dawson prefers to call it the Erian, great geological changes took place ; vast foldings of the crust of the earth, and emissions of volcanic rock. In North America " while at one time, the whole interior area of the continent, as far north as the Great Lakes, was occupied by a vast inland sea studded with coral islands, the long Appalachian ridge and the old Laurentian land began later on to assume something of the form of the present continent. The America of this Erian age con- sisted during the greater part of the period of a more or less extensive belt of land in the north, with two long tongues descending from it, one along the Appa- lachian ridge in the east, and the other in the region west of what are now the Rocky Mountains. On the sea-ward sides of these there were low lands covered with vegetation ; while on the inland side, the great interior sea, with its verdant and wooded islands, realised, though probably with shallower water, the condition of the modern Archipelagoes of the Pacific. The climate was mild, and admirably suited to nourish a luxuriant vegetation. New forms of plants seem to have been introduced from the North, where the long continuance of summer sunlight, along with great warmth, seem to have aided their early development and extension." In Europe the conditions were somewhat similar, having in the earlier portions "great sea areas with insular patches of land, and later on>wide tracks of shallow and partly enclosed water areas, swarming with fishes, and having an abundant vegetation on their shores." The Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, with its strange mailed and plated fishes, represents the former state of things ; and the Devonian of England, the time of rapidly shallowing seas. The vegetation of this period bore a strong resemblance to that of the coal forests, though all the species were different. Ferns flourished with the utmost luxuri- ance, the oldest yet known being found in the Middle Erian. Some of these attained the dimensions of tree-ferns, and in the Upper Devonian of Gilboa, New York, the remains have been found of a forest '^of tree-ferns standing in situ with their great mass of aerial roots attached to the soil in which they grew. These aerial roots introduce us " to a new contrivance for strengthening the stems of plants by sending out into the soil multitudes of cord-like cylindrical roots from various heights on the stem, and which form a series of stays like the cordage of a ship. This method of support still continues in the modem tree-ferns of the tropics." But other tree-ferns of this age show near approaches to the mode of development of exogenous stems, and for a proper description of the modifications of these transitionary stems, we must wait for an evolutionary botanist. Two types of Gymnosperms (pines and yews) now make their appearance ; the Taxineae or yews, and an extinct family, the Cordaites, with leaves like those of broad- leaved grasses or irises. The yews, though belonging to the so-called "naked seeded" plants, protect their seeds by a succulent cup-like receptacle, out- wardly resembling a true berry. No fruit has how- ever as yet been found of these Erian Taxinere, and it is doubtful if even the leaf is known. Leaves possibly belonging to them, resemble the modern Gingko of China. The Taxinese are chiefly known by their mineralised trunks, which are "often found, like drift-wood on modern sandbanks, in the Erian sandstones and limestones. They often show their structure in the most perfect manner in specimens penetrated by calcite or silica, and in which the original woody matter has been changed into anthra- cite and even graphite. These trees have true woody tissues, with that beautiful arrangement of pores or thin parts enclosed in cup-like discs, characteristic of the coniferous trees." They flourished, to all appear- ance, simultaneously in various parts of Germany, Scotland, and America. Indeed one realises in reading of the progress of plant life through all geological time up to the glacial period, that the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, con- stituted one vast continent, where plants, possibly originating in those regions now occupied only by thick-ribbed ice, spread south and east. The heat of the entire year, the long summer sunlight, the complete rest of the dark season, all seem to have contributed to make the Arctic regions of the earth (notably Green- land), a most successful hot-house for plants, and there we have every reason to suppose the highest of all plants, the deciduous exogens, were first developed. In marshy places in England still grow curious HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. 99 little plants known as Rhizocarps, or Pepperworts, which are usually placed near the Ferns, but which in many respects have affinities with higher forms. A typical species of Pepperwort {Jlfarsilea fahri) has a creeping stem sending rootlets downwards, and long stems bearing clover-shaped leaves upwards. The fructification is at the base of the leaves in the shape of ovoid sacs called sporocarps, and in each sporocarp microsporangia and macrosporangia are formed. [Microsporangia are now considered as the homologues of the pollen, and macrosporangia as the homologues of the ovules of higher plants.] The Rhizocarps of Devonian times have a history almost as curious as that of the Foraminifera of the Chalk. There is every reason to suppose that their spore cases, known as sporangites, form the chief source of the abundant reservoirs of petroleum and natural gas in the United States and elsewhere. The sporangites are highly bituminous, and contain, like the spores of Lycopods, nearly twice as much carbon as cellulose, or the ordinary tissue'of plants : — Cellulose, C 24, H 20, O 20. Lycopodium, C 42, H 19 fj NO 5 ■^. Their distribution over the earth's surface is im- mense ; they are found in North America, in Brazil, in Germany, in England, and in the "white coal" of Australia and Tasmania. The oldest bed of spore-cases examined£by Sir J. W. Dawson, is at Kettle Point, Lake Huron. It is a "bed of brown bituminous shale, burning with much flame, and under a lens is seen to be studded with flattened disc-like bodies, scarcely more than a hundredth of an inch in diameter, which under the microscope are found to be spore-cases (or macro- spores), and in the same shale are found vast numbers of rounded, translucent granules, which may be escaped spores (microspores)." In comparing these fossil spore-cases with those of modern Rhizocarps, they are found to be perfectly analogous with the spore-cases of Salvmia iiatans, a modern European species. In the bed at Kettle Point are found fossil Calamites and Lepidodendra, whose spores are, however, totally different to those of the Rhizocarps. These plants probably drifted to the spot where they are found imbedded, as the bed itself is marine, containing the graceful sea-weed Spirophyton and shells of Lingula. Some years after the discovery of the Kettle Point beds, immense deposits were found extending throughout the black shales of Ohio, from the Huron River on the shore of Lake Erie, to the Ohio Valley, a distance of nearly two hundred miles. The beds are from ten to twenty miles in breadth, and estimated to be three hundred and fifty feet in thickness, and in some parts at least three times that amount. These vast deposits are replete with these little vegetable discs, usually converted into a highly •bituminous, amber-like substance. Sporangites of similar microscopical character have been found, by Professor Huxley in the Better-bed Coal of the Forest of Dean ; by Professor Newton in the Tasmanian and Australian White Coal, and by Mr. Orville Derby in the Erian strata of Brazil. In Brazil the sporangites are often found still enclosed in their original ovoid sporocarps in " every respect resembling the sporocarps oi Salvinia uatansy Many other curious Rhizocarps are found in tho Erian shales, some having affinities with Lycopods, some with graceful fern-like fronds, others with bare poverty-stricken looking stems (Psilophyton) with rudimentary, or short and rigid leaves. "If," says Sir J. \V. Dawson, "we compare the vegetation of these ancient plants (which played so great a role in the Paleozoic world) with that of modern Rhizocarps, we shall find that the latter still present, though in a depauperated and diminished form, some of the characteristics of their predecessors. Some, like Pilularia, have simple linear leaves," resem- bling Psilophyton ; others, like Marsilea, have leaves in verticils, or whorls, and wedge-like in form, resem- bling the graceful fossil Sphenophyllum ; while others, like Marsilea, have frond-like leaves comparable to the Erian Ptilophyton. { To be continued.) THE MELBOURNE BOTANIC GARDENS. THE Melbourne Gardens lie about a mile from the centre of the city, and when the splendid bridge across the Yarra is finished, the approach to Government House, the Observatory, and the Botanic Gardens will be pleasant and convenient. The gardens cover more than one hundred acres, reclaimed from an absolute waste, and now rendered attractive both scientifically and from the landscape gardener's point of view. Due advantage has been taken of the undulating character of the enclosure ; a few in- digenous Eucalypti and other trees remain in statu quo, lending an additional interest to the surroundings. In one part especially, the retention of the original conditions is particularly happy, harmonising with the more recent additions of the gardener's art, yet retaining the primitive wildness. The swampy ground referred to lies low, dark peaty water with an islet filling a hollow in a far extremity of the Gardens. Clumps of she-oak {Casiiarina qtiadrivalvis) stand here and there, with the Hakea and Banksia forming the lower scrub. There is an air of wildness sugges- tive of unoccupied lands ; as a matter of fact, the spot has remained untouched since we first occupied Port Phillip. The Casuarina has no affinity to the oak ; the popular name is a corruption of native words. At the first glance the tree might well be a species of pine. A closer examination, however, shows the dark green cylindrical spines to be jointed in segments like an equisetum ; they might well belong to a calamite of the coal-measures. In fact, F 2 lOO HARDWI CKE ' S S CIENCE- G O SSI P. as I stood for a few moments in this swampy glade, surrounded by strange reeds, rank grasses and un- familiar vegetation, shut out from the busy world it would hardly have surprised me if some monster saurian had snapped his jaws above the murky waters. As a man, I felt it geologically wrong to be there at all ; the genus homo did not exist in the epoch here indicated. This glade is a typical feature in the Gardens. a constant supply of water trickles over the ferns and plants. The interesting epiphytical stag's-hom and elk-horn ferns flourish on many of the trees, occasion- ally attaining to the weights of several cwt.* The lake is eight acres in extent. I was struck with the graceful Egyptian papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) ^ with waving, feathery heads, growing side by side with the English water-lily, and a near Australian relative with blue flowers (iV. gigantea). The flocks. Fig. 7S.— Plan of Melbourne Botanic Gardens. Another pleasant spot is in the miniature tree-fern gully, where the gigantic fronds meet overhead, and a very labyrinth of paths twist and turn in all direc- tions. With the thermometer standing at 82° Fah. in the shade, this forms an agreeable resort and shelter from the sun's rays. The peat soil has been carefully made, and here the Dicksonia, Alsophila, etc., can be seen in full vigour, brought probably from the Dandenong gullies. By ingenious and hidden devices, of teal previously mentioned migrate annually to and from the Gippsland lakes. The method of grouping certain of the natural orders in separate beds on the different lawns is so attractive that I venture to give a rough plan of the western lawn from the authorised catalogue of the Gardens. The singular elasticity of the turf beneath * Those of great size are in the Sydney Gardens. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. lOI the foot at once strikes a stranger ; it is characteristic of the buffalo grass {Stenotaphrum glabruin) of which 2\\ the lawns are composed. WESTERN LAWN. Thus, as I enter from Mr. Guilfoyle's office, I can compare the allied magnolias, teas and camellias. Passing on to the Cupuliferte, I find more than forty species of oak flourishing. The English oak ((?. robur) grows in Australia, but too often pipe-stemmed to produce thoroughly sound timber. At the Antipodes it will probably have to learn Australian habits, and somewhat modify its deciduous propensities. All the brilliant polygales come from the Cape of Good Hope. The same applies to most of the true ericacese, whose place in the Australian flora is worthily filled by the varied epacridese. Around the two beds with typical Australian proteace^, I am again carried back to the remote past in the study of grevillias, hakeas, banksias and many a strange plant. I might pause for hours to observe the finely-coloured honey-eaters, with long bills extracting nectar from the corolla tubes. Among the nettle tribe is a rugged tree with coarse leaves of great size. It is a powerful and dangerous irritant, the bark of the same plant, it is said, supplying an antidote. I did not test the point. Among the eucalypti, the splendid scarlet-flowered species {,E. Jicifolia) undoubtedly bears the palm ; it is a handsome tree from Western Australia, with more graceful and delicate foliage than many of the commoner perplexing varieties. My favourite trees of the order myrtaceae are the rose-apples {Eugenia), liardy evergreen shrubs with rosy fruit in strong contrast to the dark green leaves, and most effective in gardens. Nothing can exceed the beauty of the Norfolk Island pine {Araucaria excelsa) ; but they thrive better in New South Wales than in Victoria. The bunya-bunya tree (Araucaria Bidwillii) more like the " monkey puzzle " pine, on the other hand, flourishes better in Melbourne. The Moreton Bay fig grows everywhere ; but the most beautiful species in the Gardens is the sacred fig (Ficus religiosa). There are palms growing in the open air from all tropical parts of the world. I found the round orange -colon red fruit of one species (I forget the name, but it was nearly allied to the wine palm), pleasant to eat ; the hard seed I have brought home to grow in a hot- house. The distribution of palmacese in Australasia and the Pacific Islands is curious ; each island has its own special group. New Zealand has but one, or at the most, two species. One of these is familiarly known as the " lawyer's tree." It has long prickly trailers, which lacerate the flesh and are most dif- ficult to get free from. Like lawyers, if you once become entangled with them, they hold fast. The other, I think, is an Areca. Norfolk Island has one palm ; Lord Howe's Island, four species all to itself; New South Wales, with eight hundrei miles of coast, but four. In one spot in Victoria, called Cabbage Tree Creek, a solitary colony of palms is found. In tropical Queensland the variety is more than in all the other parts put together. It is strange to find flower-beds, gay with plants in England, confined to warm houses, such as abutilon, datura, plumbago, scarlet euphorbia, gardenia, Bou- gainvillea, etc. etc. The brilliant canna, crimson, orange or yellow, blooms with endless persistence. The hibiscus is gorgeous. Each and every season has a wealth of blossom. Of all the natural orders, I think the euphorbiace^e are one of the most singular and interesting. From the humble wood spurge of English hedge-rows we traverse a wide field, embracing cactiform plants, brilliant flowers, forest trees, deadly poison.s, such as the South Sea Islanders use for their weapons, and plants of economic value like tapioca, to the varie- gated crotons and poinsettia, with scarlet caliciform bracts. Euphorbia splendens with crimson involu- crum is common in English greenhouses. Many species closely resemble cacti. The candlenut tree, [Akurites) has pleasant hanging foliage. One species produces a kind of gutta-percha, and nearly all have the milky fluid within the stem. Submerged in a tank I saw the peculiar lace plant of Madagascar (Ouvirandra fenestralis), having all the veins of a perfect leaf with perforated interstices. The ordinary tissue and stomata of leaves I suppose are no longer necessary for plants growing beneath the surface of the water. The filamentary leaflets of the British water crowfoot exhibit similar modifica- tions. But half the flora of the world is represented in these Gardens. I can but convey a few impressions of their rich and varied contents. Something new crops up at every turn ; to convey a distinct idea even of what ray mind retains is well-nigh hopeless. Those who can visit the tropical houses at Kew will realise what I endeavour to describe at Melbourne. C. P. ROSE PESTS. {Continued from No. 285, /. 196.] Hymenoptera. OF Hymenopterous insects which attack rose- bushes to such an extent as to become in- jurious, the larvae of the various species of sawfly are undoubtedly of the most importance. There are many species belonging to different genera which attack the plants in different ways. Some feed on the pith, but fortunately these are not numerous in this country. Others, and the great majority, feed on the leaves, often, especially when young, feeding in company, and eating away the cuticle. About a I02 HA RDWICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. a dozen different species of leaf- feeders are known as British, and about half that number are sufficiently common to do considerable damage, some seasons, to the rose leaves. Some of these sawfly larvae are slug-like in shape, and somewhat slimy, while others are more like caterpillars, but with a larger number of legs. Generally they feed exposed, eating the cuticle of the leaf, or holes quite through, but a few kinds conceal themselves by curling over the edge of a leaf, and living in the fold. These two diiiferent modes of feeding will require two separate kinds of treatment. Those which feed exposed may be dealt with by dusting the bushes with powdered hellebore, Paris green, or sulphur ; but this is best done in a morning when the leaves are wet with dew, which causes the powder to adhere. Any distasteful powder which will not injure the foliage, even riddled ashes will, to some extent, answer the same purpose, but for those which feed under the folds of the leaves, looking for the infested leaflets and picking them off is the surest way, faking care to destroy the inmates. It is important that gardeners should know something of the life-history of insects, otherwise they seldom think of applying a remedy, except when they see the damage being done, but in the case of many insects, and especially with sawflies, a winter remedy is very practicable. Most of the sawfly grubs descend in the autumn among the withered leaves on the ground, or just beneath the surface of the soil, and there spin cocoons in which they remain through the winter months, changing to chrysalids in spring. Now after a bad attack of sawfly, if the withered leaves and about two inches of surface soil be raked away from under the trees and burnt, or a hole dug and buried deep, many of the grubs will be destroyed or buried so far down that they cannot emerge, and much future damage thereby prevented ; and if the new soil, dry from the hole, be mixed with lime or some fertiliser, and spread under the trees, they will greatly benefit thereby. Many of the wild roses are subject to berry-like galls, and especially to the mossy or bedeguar gall, which grow on the stems or leaves, but as these seldom, and some never grow on the cultivated roses, it will not be necessary to enumerate them here. A list of all rose-insects will be given at the end of this article. Lepidoptera. Of moths which do injury to garden-roses the principal are the several species of Tortricina, whose larvje eat their way into the unopened bud or feed in the curled leaves. One of these {Pardia triptinctana), a small moth, with the basal portion of the front wings sooty and the outer half whitish, and with two yellow feelers (palpi) sticking out in front of the face, is a general pest, and several similar ones, as Spilonota roborana and .,9. rosacolana, are only too widely distributed. Cnrsia Berg}na7iniana is an exceedingly pretty moth, the front wings, yellow marked with orange. It is abundant everywhere where roses grow, on which the larvae feed in May. The best way of dealing with these little pests is to look for the caterpillars when at work, pick off the infested leaves or buds and destroy them, keeping a look-out at the proper time for any moths whose larvse have escaped treatment. Shaking a tree will sometimes cause the caterpillars to leave their domiciles and hang down by a silken thread, when they may the more readily be perceived and destroyed. The moths should be looked for, at the proper season, towards evening, when they begin to fly, or they may be dislodged during the day by shaking the bushes. The larvae of several species of very minute moths (Tineina) may often be found mining in the leaves, but these very seldom occur in such quantities as to be injurious, and when they do, hand-picking is the surest remedy, COLEOPTERA. The only beetles I know of as doing damage to roses are the rosechafer ( Ceionia aiirata) , a pretty large glossy-green insect which injures the flowers by eating the petals, and the lesser may-bug (Phyllopey tha horticola), which is also guilty of the same offence. When such attacks occur, shake the beetles into inverted umbrellas, or upon tarred boards and destroy thena. The first is more frequently met with in the south, and the latter in the north of England. Mildews. These are very small parasitic fungi which grow upon the leaves of different kinds of plants, and are sometimes quite as troublesome as the insects. Roses are not exempt from their attacks, and some half-dozen kinds are known as frequenting these plants. Flowers of sulphur seem to be the easiest-applied and most effectual remedy, and it is alike destructive to fungi^ and insects. It may be dusted over the plants while the dew is on, or mixed with the water with which they are syringed. Some gardeners prefer a mixture made by boiling one part of sulphur and one of quick- lime in five parts of soft water, diluting this with lOO times its bulk of water when required for use. It is only necessary for the gardener to make him- self acquainted with a few of the common insects, tO' enable him to apply remedies against many other kinds which from time to time may attack his plant : if, for instance, he knows the life- history of one of the rose tortrices, he will have a clue to the whole group, for to him, except in a little variation in the time of appearance, they may all be treated as one. But the naturalist should delve deeper into the subject, and should be ableTto discriminate between closely allied species, and should be able to advise when species which are not habitually injurious become so, as they do sometimes in certain years. \Yith a view of fur- HARD WICKE' S S CIENCE- G OS SIP, 103 ■nishing a guide to a proper understanding of this subject, I append — A Descriptive List of Insects which feed on Rose. coleoptera or beetles. Cetouia aurata. — A large brassy-green beetle, which appears through the summer and eats the petals. Phyllopertha hortkola. — A small chafer, green and brown ; eats the petals. DIPTERA. Cecidomyia rosarum. — A small midge : the larvce of which cause the leaflets to become thick and fleshy £alls. HYMENOPTERA- S.A.WFLIES. Bknnocampa pusilla. — Larvae, June and July ; green, with brown head, causing the leaves of Rosa canina to curl, inside of which the grub lives : fly, May and June ; black ; legs partly yellow. Cladius padi. — A small green larva, darker on the back, and yellow head ; eats holes in the leaves of various roses and other trees ; fly, black ; legs whitish, •wings smoky. Broods all summer. C. pectinicornis. — Larva in May and August ; flat green, with hairy tubercules : feeds on the under side of leaves of various roses ; fly in April and July ; shining black, with grey hairs and yellow joints and feet. Emphytus cindus. — Larva, July to October ; green, with brown head ; feeds on the edges of leaves of various roses, curling its tail : fly, June ; shining black ; legs partly white ; wings clear ; the female with a white band on the body. E. melanarius. — Larva little known : fly, shining black ; thighs red, black at base ; rare. E. rufocinctiis. — Larva, Aug. and Sept. ; green, sides white, head pale orange : fly, black ; body long, with red bands ; thighs black, white at base. Eriocampa roses. — Larva, June ; slug-shaped ; green- ish yellow with brown head ; eats the upper skin of the leaf : fly, May ; black ; legs partly white ; wings smoky, darkest at base. Hylotoma roses. — Larva, July and Sept. ; greenish with yellow and black spots and brown head, and :feeds on the edges of the leaf; fly, June and August ; has the horns of three joints only ; head and thorax black ; body and legs yellow. Lyda inanita. — Larva, yellow-green ; red and black spots, living in a tube made of fragments of leaves : fly, black, and yellow legs, and line on body ; horns red, yellow at base. Fcecilosoma candidatum. — Larva in May and June ; whitish ; bores into the pith : fly, black ; white and yellowish spots ; rare. The presence may be known hy the drooping state of the foliage. Rhodites eglantericE. — Round pea-like galls on leaves of R. canina and sweet-brier. R. rosarium. — Similar gall to last, but with spines. R. rosa. — The ordinary moss-gall, common on stems of wild rose. R. spinostssima. — Red, irregular galls on leaves and shoots of Rosa spinosissima. S. MOSLEY. Beaumont Park Museum, Huddersfield. (To be continued.) ASTRONOMY. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. THE death is announced of RL Tempel, who is well known as the discoverer of many planets and comets. M. Tempel succeeded Donati in 1873 as director of the new observatory at Florence. Lusatia was the birthplace of Tempel in 1821. He first gave his attention to astronomy at Venice in 1859, and in that year he discovered a comet on the 2nd of April. At Marseilles, where he removed in i860, he discovered five small planets and several comets ; of these comets two were found to be of short period. M. Tempel being expelled as a German from France in 1870, went to Milan to the Brera Observatory, under Schiaparelli, and at this obser- vatory he discovered some more comets, one of which was of very short period, making a complete revolu- tion round the sun in five years. The Rev. T. E. Espin states that the spectra of R. Leonis and R. Hydrse were observed on the 25th of February to contain bright lines, and that this Rising, Southing, and Setting of tite Prituipal PlaiiOs in May. Rises. Souths. Sets. D. h. m. h. m. h. m. 7 4 44M 0 5IA 8 58A Mercury 5 . 14 21 4 51M 5 OM I 17A I 32A 9 43A 10 4A ■ 28 5 5M I 33A ID lA / 7 3 36M II I2M 6 48A Venus ? . . 14 3 14M 10 35M 5 56A 21 2 54M 10 4M 5 14A 28 2 37M 9 41M 4 45A / 7 4 48M: 0 42A 8 36A Mars S . .< 14 4 34M 0 35A 836A 21 4 20m; 0 28A 8 36A ( 28 4 8m 0 21A 8 34A 7 II 34A 3 34M 7 30M 14 II 5A 3 SM 7 IM Jupiter %. . 21 10 3SA 2 36M 6 32M 28 10 5A 2 6m 6 2M i 7 10 24M 6 4A I 48M Saturn T?. .| 14 21 9 59M 9 34M 5 38A 5 I2A I 20M 0 S3M t 28 9 9M 4 46A 0 27M 104 BA RD WICKK S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. was afterwards confirmed by Mr. Taylor at Ealing, who saw two bright lines in the spectrum of R. Leonis and one bright line in that of R. Hydrse. In May, Mercury is a morning star, and will be in a good position for observation after sunset towards the end of the month. Venus is a morning star during the whole of the month. Mars is an evening star near Aldebaran in the middle of the month, Jupiter is not well situated for observation. Saturn is in Leo, and may be observed after sunset. There will be no celestial phenomena of unusual interest this month. semi-parasitic state on the water wood-louse [Asellus' vulgaris). Four of these rotifers I found just in the central line, between the legs of the asellus, arranged in order, the front of each one to the head of the animal, and overlapping like scales. These never quitted their situation, and, what made it certain that they were in permanent quarters on their host, among the feet of the rotifers, but not attached in any way, there were three eggs, glued on to the body of the asellus. One rotifer was on the side of the, animal, and three others were swimming in the water, which they did in a graceful manner, not very quickly, but with ease, turning the foot from side to side, then coming to anchor and making their sucker a pivot, swimming round and round, but soon. l\^^iililll!^ Fig. 76. Fig- 77- Fig. 78. Fig. 79. — Front view. Fig. 80.— Side view. SOME LITTLE-KNOWN ROTIFERS. No. I.— Pterodina truncata. By W. Barnett Burn, M.D. IN the autumn of 1850, in some water from the Black Sea at Wandsworth (as a piece of water on the Common is called), Mr. Gosse found a single specimen of a rotifer, which he called Pterodina truncata. While looking at it, and as he says, " before my observation had proceeded far," he was called away ; on his return it was retracted, and it soon died. He never saw it again, and, I believe, it has not been again recognised till I found it in November, 1888, in a shallow pool on Tooting Common, which is about three-quarters of a mile from where it was originally discovered. Tke reason of it so seldom coming to notice is probably due to its habitat. It appears to live in a moving off again, as if they had not " brought up '* in the place they desired. On being frightened, foot and head disappeared with great rapidity. Tapping on the side of the stage was sufficient to effect this. The way in which the long foot shot up through the opening in the lorica was very striking. This rotifer is the most like a Brachionus in the genus Pterodina,. being much thicker than the others, as the side view will show. Moreover, the organs go more to the edges, as there is greater room there than in the other species, and, partly in consequence, it is not so transparent. Mr. Gosse says the eyes are small and transparent, but he figures them of a moderate size and red, and such I find them. In the animal when closed the edge is not everted as in Mr. Gosse's figure, but as ia Fig. 79. The occipital margin is thrown into a fold, and the pectoral has a slit. When the head pro- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 105 trades, the fold is pulled out, the slit opens to a V- shaped aperture, and the edge becomes everted. The lorica in this genus seems more flexible than in others ; as in Pterodina valvata the sides fold down like the "flaps of a Pembroke table." The foot protrudes through an opening like Fig. 76, almost at the extremity of the lorica, quite different to the other species, in which it comes out near the middle. AN APRIL RAMBLE THROUGH SURREY. By Wm. J. V. Vandebergh, F.R.A.S., &c. " Jog on- jog on, the footpath-w.iy, And merrily hent the stile-a : A merry heart goes all the day, Your sad tires in a mile-a." — S/uikespeare's " IVintcr's Tale." VERY few people would imagine that an en- tomologist would select the month of April for an extended walk through a county like Surrey. It is, however, a much better month for walking than are the hotter ones which follow it, and having arrived at this conclusion a friend and I determined to make a pedestrian excursion through the wildest and most picturesque parts of the county, which most of my readers are no doubt aware, are to be found in the south-west portion. Although we were both entomologists, we did not by any means under- take the journey for the .=ake of the specimens we were likely to obtain, and although we carried with us most of our usual entomological paraphernalia with a view to secure stray specimens, we were neither of us over sanguine as to the result. Starting from London, early on the morning of the 23rd April, 1886, we went by train from the London Bridge Station of the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway, to Epsom, and from thence commenced our journey on foot. Nothing can be more delightfully invigorating than pedestrian exercise, in fine bracing weather, and during the whole of our short excursion we certainly had nothing to complain of in that respect, for four finer consecutive days I never remember in the month of April. Having reached Epsom we struck across the Downs and Race-course to Langley Bottom, taking the road, or rather lane, leading towards Mickleham Downs, over which we passed, thence over Juniper Hill into the main Dorking road, and on to Dorking. During this time, particularly at Langley Bottom, we observed a number of Goncpteryx rhaifini, and although we took one or two, we released them again, finding that they were not in sufficiently good condition for cabinet specimens. These butterflies had of course hibernated through the winter, as had also specimens of Vanessa tirticcE and V. Jo which we saw in some numbers here, and at other places on our journey. I noticed that the specimens of V. Jirticu: were exceedingly bright and in very fair condition, and both it and its relative V. lo must be exceedingly careful in selecting its hibernaculum. Having left Dorking behind, we took to the lane leading to the village of Cold Harbour. The ascent, though not particularly abrupt, except at a few points, is a long one to Leith Hill, which belongs to a range quite isolated from the long chain of hills which extend nearly across the county of Surrey, and. include the renowned Hog's Back to the west of Guildford. The weather which had been bright and singularly clear in the early part of the day, became, unfortunately for as, decidedly dull, before we reached Leith Hill, which we did about six o'clock in the evening. Notwithstanding the long ascent necessary to reach the spot, no one should visit the southern portion of Surrey, without climbing to the summit of Leith Hill, and ascending the tower which has been built there for the purpose of affording visitors a better view of the surrounding country. The view to be obtained from this building on a fine day, is indeed worthy of all the trouble of reach- ing it. As far as the eye can reach, on all sides, the country consists of hills and valleys, woodlands, heaths, and hedges. The little book which may be purchased at the tower, gives some account of its history, and states that it is nearly 1000 feet above the level of the sea, and is the highest point on the south-east of England. In this pamphlet is a translation of the Latin inscrip- tion on the west side of the tower which is as follows :— "Traveller, this very conspicuous tower was erected by Richard Hull, Esq., Leith Hill Place, in the reign of George the Third, 1766, that you might obtain an extensive prospect over a beautiful country ; not solely for his own pleasure, but for the accom- modation of his neighbours and all men." The little book referred to, also gives an account of the most consummate pieces of local impudence that I have recently noticed : — " For many years after the building of the tower, it was open to the public, in accordance with the intention of Mr. Hull. The privilege, however, was thought to be abused, and it was said that the tower had become a harbour for vagrants and smugglers ; so, about the year 1795 or 1800, a subscription was raised among the gentry, the entrance door was built up, and the whole interior of the tower filled up with stone and cement ; and it was found in this state, when a few years ago the tower and land adjoining, were purchased by W. J. Evelyn, Esq., of Wotton House, the present Lord of the Manor. So solid was the cement that it was found impossible to reopen the old entrance and interior staircase, therefore a staircase- tower was built by the side of the old tower in 1864, in order to make the building available for its original purpose." One cannot help admiring the elegant and scientific method employed by the neighbouring io6 HA RD WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G O SSIP. gentry to get rid of the evil referred to, nor wonder- ing why they did not pull down the tower and scatter the remains. Without doubt the latter would have been much the easier task, and would have had the effect of effectually destroying what was principally intended for the use of visitors to the neighbourhood. Quoting from "Tallis's Topographical Dictionary of England and Wales," the little book before mentioned states : " The Hill is crowned by a small structure traditionally said to mark the spot where an eccentric farmer of the neighbourhood was buried on horseback upside down, so that when the world was turned, as he believed it then soon would be, topsy- turvey, he might at last come up in the right position ! " The visitors' book kept at Leith Hill Tower, exhibits the usual amount of Cockney wit, or rather attempts at it, in the way of forged signatures of many peers, statesmen, and other persons of renown, and the absurd propensity of Englishmen of the lower class to cut their names or initials upon every object of curiosity or antiquity has been gratified to such an extent on the tower itself and its surroundings that initials cut with evident care, and no doubt much inconvenience, may be observed for a consider- able distance up the inside of the leaden water-spout in the wall of the flagstaff tower. A few convictions for wilful damage might have a beneficial effect on some of these gentry, who are evidently fully alive to the fact, that the memorials they leave behind them in this way are likely to be the only ones which will carry their memory to posterity. Leith Hill is only about 25 miles from London, and should be visited by all Londoners who appreciate rural and pictur- esque scenery and fresh air. The nearest railway station is that at Holmwood, on the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway, which is distant about three and a half miles. We did not leave the hill until it was getting dark, so had little time to lose on making our way across country to the village at which we expected to lodge that night. Our intention had been to stop at Abinger, Gomshall, Shiere, or Albury in the evening, but having reached Abinger we found to our dis- appointment that the only inn in the village was full. With the assistance, however, of the graphic directions given by a friendly countryman, we found our way to Holmbury St. Mary, a little village not usually marked on maps, but near Holmbury Hill, and here after some difficulty and loss of time we succeeded in obtaining a very agreeable lodging for the night at a private house next to the inn. The latter had been entirely filled by visitors from London. The countryman before referred to explained to us that Holmbury St. Mary was not shown on maps owing to the fact, that the post oflice of the neighbourhood was at Pitland Street, and the neighbouring village at Holmbury St. Mary had consequently been left without a name by the Ordnance Survey authorities. This explanation, being highly satisfactory to all parties, we parted with our friend somewhat relieved from serious apprehensions of a night out, which alternative we had considered by no means improbable, having regard to the fact, that the village recommended was in no way shown on the map of the county which we carried with us. It may be useful to my readers who intend to go over the same ground to make a note of this fact, for as Holmbury St. Mary is but a short distance from Abinger, and the inn at the last- mentioned place appears to be extensively patronized by visitors from London, it is desirable to have a sort of relief station in the event of failure to get a lodging at Abinger. The country which we passed through, on the first day of our walk, consisted chiefly of commons, woods, and heaths, the latter of which, notwithstand- ing the early date, were by no means monotonous, relieved as they were by occasional clumps of hollies, sallows, and other trees and shrubs. The walk from Epsom to Abinger — taking Leith Hill upon the way — would be a delightful one in summer to any one who can find enjoyment in miles of purple heather, interspersed with woodlands of the most delightful description alive with the usual inhabitants of such localities. To the entomologist, the walk would, without doubt, in proper season, be productive of many specimens for the cabinet, and certainly ornithologists and botanists would have no cause to be dissatisfied. On the 24th we continued our journey up Holm- bury Hill and along the ridge of hills to which it belongs, Holmwood and Hurtwood Commons, and through woods and heaths to Farley Green and thence through Sheep Walks to Shamley, where we stopped some time for necessary refreshment. After leaving the last -mentioned place, we crossed a tribu- tary of the river Wey and the branch of the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway, which runs here parallel with the Surrey and Sussex Canal and pro- ceeded by the main road to Bramley, and thence by country lanes and footpaths to Godalming. After leaving Bramley we met for the first time with some little difficulty, for it was dark, and there is no direct road from that place to Godalming. Owing to this fact, quantities of matches were used at every finger- post, and references to the county map were necessarily made by means of the same illumination. Owing to these delays, our progress was retarded to such an extent that we only succeeded in reaching Godalming shortly before eleven, and only just in time to obtain a lodging for the night. We had intended to visit Hambledon, a little village a few miles to the south of Godalming, celebrated as the birth-place of cricket, but as we were exceedingly doubtful as to whether we should obtain accommodation there for the night, we deemed it expedient to make for Godalming, where there was little doubt of obtaining comfortable HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. 107 quarters. We saw several hibernated specimens of V. urtica, V. lo, and G. rhamni, during the day, and I took a number of specimens of Hymenoptera and Diptera at Sallow catkins on Hurtwood Common in the morning. The country passed through during this day was fairly wooded after leaving Hurtwood Common, and presented features in every way as satisfactory to a naturalist as that traversed the day before. We were up betimes next morning (the 25th), as our road that day lay through the wildest portion of the county, and there were no places; of any con- siderable size at which we could stop the night nearer than Farnham, which was much further to the north than the places we wished to visit. Directly we started away from the town my friend secured a hibernated specimen of Vanessa poly chlorosy the only one we saw during our journey. If I remember rightly, Godalming was a favourite ornithological resort of the late Mr. Edward New- man, and certainly the country round about it would appear to be well stocked with his feathered friends. In many places, even at this early portion of the year, their incessant songs and chirping were the only sounds to be distinguished. We proceeded along the main Petersfield Road, through Witley Common, past the Hammer Ponds, through Shursley Common, to the huge and peculiar ravine known as the Devil's Punch Bowl, a most romantic spot, round the margin of which the Petersfield Road bends abruptly in dangerous proximity to a precipitous descent, and one shivers to think of the old stage- coach on a dark night careering gallantly along such a dangerous path. The scene from the higher ground, above the Bowl, is majestic in the extreme, and the view is only to be surpassed during our walk by that obtained from the summit of Leith Hill. The place gives one a sense of loneliness, which is not improved by coming suddenly across the stone described by Dickens in his "Nicholas Nickleby," and which so interested Poor Smike when journeying with Nicholas past the rim of the Devil's Punch Bowl on their way to Portsmouth. This stone is known to every pedestrian who has travelled this road, as it stands by the side of the roadway and cannot escape observation. On the side facing the road it bears the following inscription, which may be interesting to some readers who have no doubt heard of the incident referred to at some time or other. Erected In detestation of a barbarous murder Committed here on an unknown sailor On Sep. 24th, 1786, By Edwd. Lonegon, Michl. Casey and Jas. Marshall, who were all taken the same day and hung in chains near this place. " Whoso sheddeth man's blood by man shall his Blood be shed." — Gen. chap. 9, ver. 6. See the back of this stone. On the back is the following : This stone was erected by order and at the cost of James Stillwell, Esq., of Cosford, 1786. Cursed be the man who injureth or removeth this stone. the malediction at the end of the inscription appears to have had some little effect, but not- withstanding the dire consequences to be antici- pated therefrom numbers of persons have more or less ornamentally executed their initials on the stone, the inclination to do so apparently being too strong to be overcome. One would have thought that every person who could read and write would have had some respect for a request so forcibly put, but it appears to be otherwise. Leaving the Devil's Punch Bowl, we proceeded through Hind-head Common and Frensham Com- mon, on the borders of Hampshire, to Frensham, the chief characteristics of which are total lack of accommodation for travellers, and three large ponds known respectively as Frensham Great Pond, Fren- sham Little Pond, and Abbot's Pond. The only one of these pieces of water which we closely inspected was Frensham Great Pond, the bottom of which appears to be wholly composed of silver sand. The water of this pond is very clear, and the only life we discovered therein was the wheel animalcule Volvox globator. This my friend subsequently discovered in a very lively condition in his brandy-flask, which he had filled with water from the pond in question. Long before we arrived at this point, the provisions which we had brought with us had been wholly consumed. We had visited the " Royal Huts Hotel," about half a mile from the Devil's Punch Bowl, with a view to refresh the inner man, and after patiently waiting about twenty minutes, ultimately succeeded in obtaining some) liquid refreshment, our request for a cold collation being responded to in a way which gave us a very shadowy idea as to how long we should have to wait for it. We were eventually forced by lapse of time to countermand our order and proceed on our way by no means rejoicing. Let the weary traveller not rely upon Frensham as a place of refreshment — we did, and were disappointed. After going considerably out of our way to the old village we discovered that although there was a large church and a number of houses there, no inn was at present in existence. We had to retrace our steps, and after proceeding some distance in the direction of Locks Hill at last reached a small inn known as the " Three Mariners," where the only eatables we could obtain were bread, cheese, and butter, to which in a half famished condition we did such ample justice, that the shades of night had fallen before we set out again on io8 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. our ramble. We had intended to stay at Elstead this night, but as we were unacquainted with the size of the place, and it was marked on our maps in the same type as Frensham, we decided to make for Farnham, which place we reached via Farnham Common in time to secure a suitable lodging for the night. Our journey that day had been chiefly through commons of the wildest possible description, covered with dry heather and gorse ; and the only insects we had seen were a few hibernated specimens of V. 7irtic and many others. It will at once be seen that of this- somewhat incomplete list— with the exception of the willow-herb (pink), sedum (pink), pyrus (crimson), and borage (blue), nearly the whole are white, or nearly so, some greenish, and very many incon- spicuous ; and there is but one bltie flower in the whole series. Now although the support of an apiary of fifty unusually strong stocks— consisting of probably not less, in the height of the season, than one and-a-half million bees— is very little helped by half an acre of honey-producing flowers, proximity to hives of even so limited a floricultural area is a wonderful advantage in uncongenial weather, since it tempts bees, afraid to venture to any great distance from the apiary, to work near home, and they will crowd upon plants but a short distance off. I therefore invariably cultivated ex- tensive beds of willow-herb, borage, mignonette, ar(d the abundant honey-yielding sedum, with the result that, weather permitting, those beds were at all times crowded ; nor amongst the tens of thousands that visited them could I ever distinguish any marked preference for blue. If it ever appeared that one plant was laid under heavier contribution than another, it was perhaps the sedum referred to, its rich stores inviting the visits not only of Apis melliflca, but also of innumerable butterflies and- humble-bees. Somewhat different is it in the case of humble- bees. In the spring, when fruit trees are in full bloom, their colonies are in their infancy, and very few are to be seen ; but, as genial summer tardily HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. in advances, innumerable bright-hued flowers spread out their beauty to charm the eye — the mental eye of man — mayhap of bird and beast, although some do -deny to these latter any appreciation of beauty. Now humble-bees abound. Far less choice are they in their selection : the poisonous monkshood and fox- glove are rifled of their stores ; antirrhinums seem especial favourites ; and a host of brightly-tinted ilowers are visited, sometimes hours before the hive- bee is stirring ; nor cease the active creature's labours until the latter has long since retired for the night. Like the hive-bee, however, they show no marked preference for blue; nor do they disdain to rifle of their nectar the blossoms of the sycamore, lime, snowberry, &c. ; and it does not appear that in their case any more than in that of the hive-bees, there is a tittle of evidence to support the "taste for blue" theory, which seems to be founded upon a fallacy, and one possessing not -even the equivocal merit of plausibility. Of course, ^s with the hive-bee, when blue honey-yielding ilowers predominate, we may reasonably expect to find that there they most do congregate. "I'is, too, evident that all bees must obtain honey sotnruihere, and during an unpropitious season, when honey is scarce, flowers almost unvisited when honey is abundant are again and again visited by roamers, and the whole floral world is ransacked in a bootless quest for sweets — bootless, for 'tis one thing to seek, quite another to find ; and it is not because in such bad seasons bees visit in succession every flower, blue or otherwise, that, therefore, they are actually collecting siovts; yet many observers (!) cannot even see a tired bee temporarily resting upon a leaf without too hastily assuming that it is gathering in a heavy harvest. They would probably arrive at the same conclusion if they saw it resting upon a cabbage. Let us consider how the matter must of necessity stand if the long-tongued insect selection theory be admitted. One of three things must, inevitably, have happened. Either, firstly, vanquished in the struggle for existence, the short-tongued must have been extinguished — eliminated out of creation, and none would now survive ; or, secondly, the process of specialisation must have been continued by the shorter-tongued bees, who would have a manifest advantage over their still shorter-tongued brethren, as their longer-tongued had had over them, the process being continued through the whole series of nectar- seekers until it reached its utmost limits, when none but the simplest forms of tongued insects would be found — these associated with the most primitive iloral structures ; or, thirdly, matters must have remained in statu quo — or nearly so — the balance being scarcely, if at all, disturbed. Elect whichever we will of these three alternatives, we shall find it beset with difficulties. As regards the first, 'tis evident enough that the short-tongued insects have not been eliminated, since they yet abound, and probably they numerically far out- number the long-tongued.* This, however, is specu- lation. How is it that thus far such have contrived to survive in so one-sided a struggle for existence ? With respect to the second alternative. If the theory were true, not only might we reasonably expect to find a much larger proportion of specialised blue, or indeed of any rich-coloured flowers than are actually to be found, but, most assuredly, should oftener find particular species of bees frequenting certain specialised flowers — and no others — to which both by structure and habit they had become adapted. Sir John Lubbock f mentions, on the authority of H. Miiller, six species of insects which visit ex- clusively six species of plants. Small number indeed, and probably far below the actual number that will in time be recorded. It, however, helps to show upon how unsound a basis it is sought to found the theory. 'Tis plain that where certain flowers offer to certain species of bees, or other insects, greater inducements or facilities than are to be found in other flowers, these will be most frequently visited, and so through the whole range of insect economy ; but this in no wise proves that there has been developed within the insects a preference for such particular flowers on account of their colours, nor does it prove that they have in any wise " stereo- typed and perpetuated " these colours by in future selecting them to the neglect of those less vivid. Of course there will ever be accidental adaptations of insects to plants — plants to insects. Our knowledge on the subject is, however, at present very limited, nor can we determine which are merely accidental and which designed ; on the contrary, where there exist flowers of various colours, honey equally attain- able, the inference would be just the other way : the result would be, not the ^'perpetuation " of certain intense colours, but rather the production of yet greater varieties, as in the case of flowers of some species, but of various colours, which bees visit indis- criminately, thereby producing endless varieties, the pale-coloured acquiring bright tints when fertilised by pollen of richer-coloured ; the rich-coloured, on the other hand, becoming paler when fertilised by pollen from the pale-hued. There, also, it will be seen that variety — mutability — is the law ; not perpetuation — permanence. Every tyro is aware of the difficulties which beset the floriculturist in his endeavours to preserve in. their purity the strains of richly-coloured flowers, his efforts in this direction being constantly rendered abortive owing to the visits of insects, which convey the poUeti of the flower of one colour to that o • By the way, these terms are remarkably vague and flexible, seeing that relatively to their size the tongue of a short-tongued bee may be much longer than that of a long-tongued. t " British Wild Flowers in Relation to Insects," p. 2i. 112 ITA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. another, so that he is actually driven to the course of propagating by slip?, rather than run the risk of producing a pale-coloured seedling. The weakness of the theory is particularly apparent when it is remembered that, in a vast proportion of plants cultivated by this same floriculturist, for either their beauty or utility, the flowers have not evolved their colours through any process of natural selection, but entirely through his artificial methods ; and although many of these are now visited — eagerly sought — by both long- and short-tongued insects, they are many of them in their wild state visited seldom, or not at all, either yielding an infinitesimal quantity of honey, or offering insuperable obstacles to its extraction. Whether or not on the whole insectn more frequently visit certain cultivated plants than they do the wild stocks from whence they have been produced, I am not competent to determine, but I incline to the opinion that they do, since the scent, or colour, or both, having been so greatly improved, it is but reasonable to suppose that so also has been the secretion of honey. Nor must we lose sight of the fact, that a host of flowers of every colour yet secrete no honey, and are consequently not now visited by insects, and, we may fairly assume, never have been. To insects, therefore, can in no sense be due their often rich colours. There yet remains to be considered the third alternative, which had nearly been overlooked by me. Now if it be argued that the short-tongued bees, &c., continue as they were from the beginning, the theory scarcely needs refutation, since it would be manifestly absurd to suppose that but a comparatively few flowers have been spe- cialised for the benefit of a few long-tongued insects, and that there the process has ceased, that no other changes have been brought about. The least disturbance of Nature's scheme in one particular inevitably involves, in a greater or lesser degree, the disturbance of the whole. The omnivorous but sweet-loving wasps are perhaps the most active, hardy and intelligent of the whole order of Hymenoptera, and yet ii^ '' their lingual implement is of the shortest. Upon ^ ivy blossoms we find myriads of these and other short-tongued flies, both hymenopterous and dipterous, feasting upon the honey which so temptingly lies spread over the whole uncon- cealed disc of the inconspicuous flower. Why have both flower and short-tongued insects so long survived unchanged, unspe- cialised, when the process — so say the selectionists — has been and still is in operation ? Throughout the whole of this discussion, besides the "taste for blue" theory, the modification and the development of the colours of flowers have been strangely commingled. Consequently I, too, have been inadvertently drawn into the same some- what desultory method — that is to say, want of method. I may remind the reader that there is not necessarily any connection between this modification and this development. The modification of already- existing colours in flowers may, in large measure, be due to the unconscious interposition of insects. The so-called development of colours in colourless flowers is practically their creation ; after the initial stage their developme7it follows, and is, according to the theory, dependent upon the intelligence of certain insects. The first is a fortuitous process ; the second has nothing fortuitous about it, but is manifestly a process brought about through the intelligent exercise of the insect's mental faculties, and evidences will, choice, preference, selection. So often do the disciples of modern theorists push their theories to conclusions that go far beyond the intention of the original promulgators. Edward H. Robertson. RAVENS, PEREGRINE FALCONS, AND PUFFINS ON PORTLAND HEAD. LAST year (l888) on a cold, snowing, and stormy 13th March, I took a raven's nest with six eggs from a large hole in the West Cliff, Portland ; the eggs were highly incubated. The ravens set to work, and, selecting a new spot, built again. I discovered that another collector in Weymouth intended to try for them, by the assistance of some native cliff-men. i0M ^ I tried to dissuade him, but, as he would not be persuaded, I determined to have a try for them myself again, though I should have preferred to let the birds hatch out a brood. On the afternoon of 29th March I went down to the new nest and saw six eggs again, but could not reach them, owing to the cliff overhanging. Whilst I was hanging in ^ HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, 113 mid-air I heard voices above ; the cliff-men had come, and they succeeded in getting the eggs by the help of a hook on the end of a pole, with which the man hauled himself in. They had been there in the forenoon, and only five eggs were then laid : but they had not the pole and hook and could not get the eggs. These same men took two more eggs on iith April I don't think it is generally known that puffins breed on the Bill ; I have not seen it mentioned by any Natural History book. Last year I saw six puffins' eggs taken 21st May, and an old bird was caught, and bit the man's hand when he thrust his arm into one of the holes. James B. Young. Fig. 82. — Head and Foot of Raven. from the first nest, making a total of fourteen eggs laid by the same pair of birds in one year. This year I was too late, for on the 26th February I went down and found the nest had been robbed on the 20th by the cliff-men (five eggs). A second nest was made, and five eggs taken by the same men on the 13th March ; and on the 28th March a third nest with five more eggs was taken. Three of the eggs, which I have seen, were light colour— a kind of slate colour— the other two normal. So in 1888 the same birds laid fourteen eggs, and in 1889, fifteen eggs. I have the first six eggs taken by self in 18S8, and the two first clutches taken this year in my possession ; in each clutch one is smaller and of a lighter colour than the others. On the loth April the cliff-men took a Peregrine falcon's with four eggs — there was hardly any pre- tence at a nest. The eggs were laid on a ledge of blue clay, and were covered with it. I have two of them now in my cabinet. The birds laid again, and, I believe, hatched out their young ones safely. OUR SCIENTIFIC DIRECTORY. [The Editor will be obliged, if, for the benefit of his numerous, readers, secretaries of scientific societies will send notices like the following, also place and time of meeting.] iryEDFORD Amateur Natural History Society: J-J President, Dr. Crick ; Hon. Secretary, H. Darrington ; place and time of meeting, 6, Gwyn St., Bedford, on Tuesday evenings at 8.15. WcUitiFton College AhitJiral Science Society: President, S. A. Saunder, Esq. ; Secretaries, H. A. Cruickshank, A. J. V. Durell. North Staffordshire Naturalists'' Field Club and ArchcEologicol Society : President, J. R. B. Masefield : Hon. Secretary, Rev. T. W. Daltry, Madeley Vicarage, Newcastle, Staff. Excursions monthly, April to September ; evening meetings monthly, November, January, February, March. Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club, Hereford: President, H. Southall ; Hon. Secretary, H. C. Moore ; Assistant Secretary., J. B. Pilley. Annual 114 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, meeting early in April at the Woolhope Club Room, Free Library, Hereford. Woolwich District Natural History Society: President, Rev. J. W. Horsley ; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer, F. Barry, II, Green's End, Woolwich. Meets {pro tern.) at Parish Room, Rectory, first Tuesday evening in each month. Rambles every Saturday afternoon, St. MargareCs Natural History Society, JVest- minster: President, Ven. Archdeacon Farrar, D.D. ; Chairman, Rev. R. Ashington Bullen, B.A. ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. G. A. Freeman. Meetings, generally on the third Friday of each month in the St. Margaret's Boys' School, New Tothill Street, Westminster, at 7.30 P.M. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. The Aberdeen Working Men's Natural History Society held their annual exhibition on the 22nd and 23rd March. Entomology was well represented by the collection of Messrs. Home, Cowie, Terras, Duncan, Mearns and Rae ; Crustacea by Messrs. Murray, Duncan, and Rae ; shells by Messrs. Simpson, Duncan, Rae, and Fraser ; zoophytes by Mr. Simpson ; spiders by Messrs. Mearns and Terras ; birds by Messrs. Center, Beveridge, Mundie, Fraser, Sim, Duncan, Mitchell, Benzies, and Mathers ; eighteen microscopes by Messrs. Gibb, Cowie, Mearns and Duncan ; botany by Messrs. Duncan, Simpson, and Wallace ; Mr. Wallace exhibited a fine •collection of seaweeds ; a capital collection of micro- iungi was exhibited by Prof. J. W. H. Trail. The Kuddersfield Naturalists' Society has started a .monthly circular, of which the first two numbers are before us. Besides the usual announcements, lists of meetings, &c., there are queries and answers, notes on what to observe and what to study, a natural history diary for January, February and March, exchanges, &c. Altogether the circular is a sign of the vitality of the society, and of the energy of its secretary. Royal Institution. — The following are the lecture arrangements after Easter : — Dr. Jean Paul ^ichter, three lectures on the Italian Renaissance Painters : their associations, their education, and their employments (with illustrations) ; Professor JE. Ray Lankester, four lectures on Some Recent Biological Discoveries ; Mr. Eadweard Muybridge, of Pennsylvania, two lectures on the Science of Animal Locomotion in its relation to design in art .(illustrated by the Zoopraxiscope) ; Professor Dewar, five experimental lectures on Chemical Affinity ; Mr. Joseph Bennett, four lectures on the Origin .and Development of Opera in England (with musical illustrations) ; Professor W. Knight, of St. Andrews, three lectures, on — I. The Classification of the Sciences Historical and Critical ; II. Idealism and Experience, in Philosophy and Literature ; III. Idealism and Experience, in Art and Life (the Tyndall lectures). The Friday evening meetings will be resumed on May 3rd, when a discourse will be given by Sir Henry Roscoe, M.P, on Aluminium ; succeeding discourses will probably be given by Professor Dewar, Professor Silvanus P. Thompson, the Rev. S. J. Perry, Pro- fessor D. Mendeleef, Mr. A. Geikie, Mr. C. V. Boys, and other gentlemen. In connection with the recent Lantern Slide Competition, instituted by the Proprietors of "The Amateur Photographer," a Public Exhibition of the Slides entered for competition was given in the Theatre of the Crystal Palace, on Friday, April 5th, at 7.30 P.M. Mr. William Brooks had charge of the Lantern, and Mr. T. C. Hepworth, F.C.S., gave particulars of the pictures, which were all the work of amateurs, as they passed on to the screen. The work of amateur photographers has never before been shown under such favourable conditions. MICROSCOPY. New .Slides. — We have received from Mr. A. J. Doherty, of Manchester, the following excellent slides : — Skin of ear of rabbit (injected carmine) ; tongue of kitten, trans, sec. (injected carmine), a beautiful preparation ; lip of cat, vert. sec. (injected carmine and stained blue) ; medulla oblongata of rabbit (stained hematoxylin), showing the fine nervous structure very beautifully ; ankle of kitten, trans, sec. (injected carmine and stained blue), showing the ossifying cartilage, besides other interesting details ; stomach of frog, trans, sec, pyloric end (stained carmine), showing the glands and columnar epithe- lium ; apothecium of a lichen (Solorina saccata), vert, sec, showing the spores in asci ; anther of Lilium auratum, trans, sec. (stained carmine), showing all the pollen i>t situ; fertile head of field horsetail {Equisctum a>~jense), trans, sec, showing the spores with their spiral elaters ; ovary of foxglove {Digitalis\ trans, sec. (stained carmine), showing all the ovules in situ ; trans, sec of the spine of Acrocladia mat/iil- lata, and echinoderm from the Indian Ocean ; frog's blood (stained picro-carmine). The peri-nuclear portion of each corpuscle is coloured yellow, the nucleus itself red. With a good J-inch objective the " intra-nuclear plexus of fibrils" (Stirling) can be seen distinctly. Mr. Hinton's Slides. — We have received from this well-known preparer the following slides, both of high interest to the young botanist : I, an instructive preparation showing the curious mode of reproduc- tion by the strawberry, where the carpels are placed HA RD WICKE ' .S ^ CIENCE- G O SSI P. "? outside the fleshy receptacle (the seed is seen inside the fruit) ; 2, the pollen of the hazel, showing development of the pollen-tubes. FORAMINIFERA. — In the note of mine last month r^ "Gossip about Foraminifera," you printed "Frihtel and Moll," which should be Fichtel and Moll, and quoted my name as F. Chatman instead of F. Chap- man. Perhaps the fault lay in my indistinct writing, and I apologise sincerely for the errors. — F. Chaptnan. The April number of "The Journal of Micro- scopy " contains the following papers : " Romance of Geology in the North-West of Canada," by Mrs- Alice Bodvngton ; " Freshwater Sponges," by Henry Mills ; " How the Spider makes her Web," by H. M. J. Underbill ; " On some ^Common Species of the Gamasidae," by Lieut.-Colonel L. Blathwayt ; " Microscopical Imagery," by Dr. Royston-Pigott ; "The Development of the Tadpole," by J. W. Gatehouse, &c. The Quekett Microscopical Society. — The journal for April contains the following papers : — "Further Notes on Coccids from British Guiana," by S. J. Mclntire ; " On the Larval Forms of Ortonia and Icerya," by R. T. Lewis ; "On Inter- ference Phenomena," and " On Insect Anatomy," by Prof. B. T. Lowne ; " On the Oamaru Diatom Papers of Messrs. Grove and Sturt," by A. Grunow. ZOOLOGY. Gould's Finches {Porphila Gouldii). — \\. may interest readers of Scienxe-Gossip to know that I have succeeded in getting these brilliant birds safely to England from Queensland, their tropical home. They are vivacious and tame, feeding freely on canary seed from the hand. Twenty degrees of frost on the night of February nth, tried them, but we kept the room heated, and the birds survived. The finch-like bill is white tipped with crimson ; the head and throat are velvet black ; the breast, a rich mauve or violet ; the under parts golden-yellow ; a ring of turquoise round the neck, and on the tail coverts; the back, bright green, and tail quills black, the female is altogether paler than the male bird. There is a variety in Queensland, which I saw in Sydney, with a crimson cap, and one bird developed a yellow cap. Further information can be given if required. — C. Parkinson. American Shells in the River Humber. — The following interesting note is from the " Man- chester City News" of March 23, 1889. "A fine series of Venus mercenaria has been dredged alive from the river Humber. It was observed in 1864, and again in 1868, and has steadily increased till the present time, and is now bidding fair to compete with the familiar cockle. This fine Venus is com- monly known in America as the clam, and is of course an edible species. A number of shells dredged from the river were exhibited by Mr. J. R. Hardy at the Manchester monthly conchological meeting in March." — Geo. Roberts. Golden Oriole. — It may interest some of your readers to hear that, on Saturday last, March 2nd, a friend and myself saw a golden oriole in a pine wood near here. This bird is a very early arrival, as I believe that golden orioles, on the few occasions that they do visit us, do not arrive before the beginning of April. — A. G. Hudson, Ashingt07i, Pulborough, Sussex.. Erratum. — p. 44, 2nd col., line 25 from top, for "1888 "read" 1886." A Rare Fish. — Mr. Arthur Patterson, of Great Yarmouth (whose book on Monkeys was mentioned in last month's issue), has just added a very rare fish to the local fauna. He has already added about a dozen species to the previous lists of fishes, his latest being Midler's Scopelus, which he found amongst, seaweed which had been left by some fishermen on the beach from their draw (seine) net. It was found on Sunday, the 31st March. South Devonshire Mollusca. — Looking over some old papers, I came across a list of shells found by Mr. E. D. Marquand in the Exeter district, which I received from him in 1887. It was proposed at the time to make a careful investigation of the South Devonshire Mollusca, and Mr. Marquand kindly sent me this list to show what he had obtained up to that date (May, 1887). Shortly after, I believe Mr. Marquand went abroad, and I also left England, so nothing more was done. But the list is too valuable to be lost, so, with the Editor's permission, I will present it to the readers of Science-Gossip.. " List of Mollusca found in the Exeter District ; " by E. D. Marquand. '■'■ Spharium corneum, S. lacustre,. Pisidium amnicum, Ancylus lacustris, A. Jluviatilis,. Paludina vhnpara, , Vitrina pellucida and var. depressiuscula. Helix aspersa and var. minor. Helix nemo7-alis and vars. rubella, castanea, libellula, carnea,, minor and bimarginata, H. hortensis, and vars. incarnata, hitea, olivacea, roseolabiata, arenicola, and lilacina, H. arbtistonnn, and var. major, H. cantiana^ and var. alba, H. rotundata, H. virgata, and var. leucozona, H. caperata, H, concinna, H. fusca, H. aaileata, H. hispida, H. pygmcea, Zonites cellarius, Z. alliarius, Z. draparnaldi, Z. 7iitidulus, Z. fulvus, Z. purus. Z. crystallinus, Z, glaber, Limncea peregra^ and vars. ovata and labiosa, L. truncatula, var. minor^ and var. having purple bands, L. palusiris, Succinea putris, S. elegans, Planorbis marginatus, P. vortex,. P. contorttis, P. albus, Cochlicopa lubrica, Clausilia rugosa, and var. tumidula. Pupa umbilicata, and var.. edentula, Balea perversa, Carychium minimiun, Physa fontinalis, Bythinia tentacitlata." Mr. Marquand also adds the following forms found by him in South. ii6 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Devon, but not in the Exeter district : — " Helix aspersa, M. sinisirorsum, and van exalbida, and H. lapicida, Ashburton ; H. rii/escens, and H. rupestris, Torquay ; H. rufescens, H. rupestris, Zonites excavatus, var. vitrina, and Bnlimus obscurus, Ivybridge ; Bulimus acutus, Thurlestone, near Kings- bridge. Mr. Marquand says of H. rufescens, " It is very curious that I have not yet seen a trace of this common species in this (Exeter) neighbourhood." — T.D.A. Cockerel!, West Cliff, Colorado, Feb. 23, 1889. Parasites on Rats and Mice. —I have recently had the opportunity of examining several specimens of field mouse {^Mus sylvaticus), and on some of them I found living specimens of a Laelaps, so closely re- sembling those found on the Vole that I think they must be considered as the same species. The chitinous plates were not quite so dark-coloured, and perhaps the abdominal plate is rather larger, and not ■quite so angular, as in the specimens from the Vole. I also found with them specimens without the chiti- nous dorsal plate, and these appeared to resemble Koch's L. pachypiis, but were, I believe, only imma- ture specimens. It would be very interesting to have the opportunity of examining specimens taken from the other rats and mice, to determine if possible whether there be but one species of Laalaps, or several. — C. F. George. GEOLOGY, &c. Ledges on Banks or Hill Slopes. — There has been some discussion on this subject in '* Nature " of February last and March 14th. In the first, Mr. Ernst adopts the idea of Mr. Darwin, that these ledges are due to the sliding down of the surface-soil ; but "they will probably depend, first of all, on the conditions of the ground and its vegetation." Mr. E. J. Mills says, " These ledges owe their origin to rain-water," which entering the soil dissolves some of it, and the unsup- ported plot " would collapse to a lower level." The two then coincide partly, but what were the first con- ditions ? On this depends the great problem of the *' sea-level." On all sea shores of the present day where the angle is bet\\een 30° and 50", we find the slope is irregular, that is, there are small ledges here and there formed by the irregular break of the wave, by the uncertain deposit of material, or by the uncertain slip of shingle. During neap tides the wind blows over these ledges and deposits drifts against them. If the spring tides do not cover the highest of these drifts, they assume some consistency, and vegetation grows upon them. These ridges or ledges are very similar in shape and general character to those we now find high above, or extending down to the level of the present sea, on to the level of the plain at the foot of the slope. In looking at some of these ledges in Dorsetshire and Scotland, I found some with and some without sand or shingle in their beds ; where these were found, I supposed that ridge was formed by the wave in situ ; where there was no sand or sea- deposit, I supposed the surface had slipped. In both cases another cause made these ledges more pro- nounced— vegetation grew freely on the wind-blown drift, and animals ate it as they walked along at the foot of the slope. They made that deeper — most ledges are steepest down hill — therefore, after actions have made these ledges into what we see, but wind or water began the drifts on which those ledges grew. Gravel beds are high on the hills, they have never been upheaved ; therefore the sea has sunk, and our geological schools had better allow this as a fact. — H. P. Malet. The Mammoth in Belfast. — An interesting find is reported from Belfast. Dr. John Moran, of that town, has found a tooth of Elephas pri/nigenius in the drift gravels at Lame Harbour, The following is the succession of beds in ascending order : I, older boulder clay ; 2, coarse gravel with rolled stones (3 to 4 ft. thick) ; 3, coarse gravel with rolled stones (6 to 10 ft. thick) ; 4, silt, or rather coarse laminated clay (3 to 5 in. thick) ; 5, a second layer of coarse gravel with rolled stones (18 in. to 2 ft. thick) ; 6, dark surface layer (18 in. thick) containing neolithic implements of a rude type. It was in bed No. 4, formed from the denudation of the newer boulder clay, that the tooth was found. The Geologists' Association. — The February number of the Proceedings of this Association, besides the list of meetings, etc., contains the following papers : " On the Causes of Volcanic Action," by J. Logan Lobley ; " On Some Bagshot Pebble-Beds and Pebble Gravel," by H. W. Monckton and R. S. Herries ; *' On the Palaeontology of Sturgeons," by A. S. Woodward. The following is the list of excursions of the above Association for 1889 : April 6, College of Surgeons; April 19, 20, Lyme Regis, 22, 23, Weymouth (Easter excursion) ; May 4, Boxmoor ; May 25, Brentwood ; June i, Sevenoaks and Ightham ; June 10, li, Ipswich and Suffolk (Whit- suntide excursion) ; June 22, Horsham ; June 29, Medway ; July 13, Epsom ; July 20, Wallingford ; August, North Cumberland, Long excursion, date not decided. NOTES AND QUERIES. ■ Buteo Lagopus (Rough Legged Buzzard).— I wish to record the capture of a specimen of this bird at Guarlton, in November last. This bird is of so rare occurrence in this district, that the addition of this species to the local fauna will be a welcome one. The bird was captured by a game-keeper, who first observed it in a trap ; on his approach the bird attempted to rise in the air, but was shot and secured by him, and has now been preserved. It is a very HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 117 fine specimen, measuring over 4 ft. 6 inches across the wings. The only other records I can find of this species being taken about here are, one shot at Lobstock Flats, 1852, and another at Blackstone Edge, 1868.—/'. W. Papk, 62 Waterloo Street, Bolton. The "Wandering Jew."— In reply to your enquirer, Mr. John Christie, the above name is applied in this neighbourhood to Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill, but I have met with very few persons, not botanists, who are able to give any name at all to this plant. — IV. P. Hamilton, Shracshnry. Plantago lanceolata.— F. H. Arnold's note on F. maritima calls to mind a curious freak of nature in the case of P. lanccolata. Last August I collected a specimen, one of the peduncles of which bore on its apex, in place of the usual flower-head, a complete plant in miniature, with leaves one to three inches long, and one or two small flower-heads on short pedicels arising from among them. The appearance resembled, at first sight, that of Paris quadrifolia. — W. P. Hamilton, Shrewshiry. Hawfinches and Crossbills at Stapleton Park. — The hawfinch nests annually at Stapleton Park, near Pontefract. Last year the nests and eggs were seen by the keepers there. A flock of crossbills appeared at this place in autumn, and were seen till December, or later. Out of six shot, two were males in fine crimson plumage. — Geo. Roberts. Nightingale in Wales.— In June of 1888, a corresponding friend. Miss Wordsworth, of New Brighton, near Liverpool, informed me that a night- ingale had been heard singing at Bodrhyddan Park, near Rhyl, in North Wales. As this bird is so seldom heard in Wales, I should like to ask if any one living in the West of England, or Wales, could give any more information about it. During the last ten or twelve years the nightingale has been heard farther north than in previous years, and it may be extending westward. — Geo. Roberts, Lojthotise. Shell-Changing, and Fluid Membranes.— The following extract from Emerson's Essay on " Com- pensation," may interest, if not amuse, some of your readers: "The changes which break up at short intervals the prosperity of men are advertisements of a nature whose law is growth. Every soul is by this intrinsic necessity quitting its whole system of things, its friends, and home, and laws, and faith, as the shell-fish crawls out of its beautiful but strong case, because it no longer admits of its growth, and slowly forms a new house. In proportion to the vigour of the individual, these revolutions are frequent, until in some happier mind they are incessant ; and all worldly relations hang very loosely about him, becoming, as it were, a transparent fluid membrane, through which the living form is seen, and not, as in must men, an indurated heterogeneous fabric of many dates, and of no settled character, in which the man is imprisoned. Then there can be enlargement, and the man of to-day scarcely recognises the man of yesterday." — John Haweil, M.A., Inglely, Greenhow Vicarage. " Vandal Naturalists."— I was very pleased to see the remarks made by Mr. Williams, under this head, in the last number of Science-Gossip. There is, among naturalists, far too much of the collecting spirit, and too little of the searching out of new facts. The lepidopterist procures a cabinet, spaces the \ drawers off into a certain number of partitions, allotting a space to each of the British species ; he gets the spaces filled up as quickly as he can, by capture, exchange, or by buying, if he can afford. As. each space is filled up, the name of the insect is crossed off on his exchange list, and he has done with that particular kind — would not go twenty yards out of his way to take it again, unless he had some idea of exchanging it for others he had not got. Some collectors even go so far as to refuse an insect unless it be "bred," and pinned with a "black pin." I sometimes wonder whether such persons are making collections of insects or pins ? Now I think this is vandal in the extreme — to pretend to be studying a science and refuse to look at specimens unless they are pinned in a certain way. The true student will be glad, even of a single wing, rather than be without. To allot a space for Acronycta al/ii, equal to that for Apema oculea, is unjust. If the space is short it is inadequate to show the variations of the latter, and if long it is unfair, even if one can, to fill it with such a rare thing as the former. Egg collectors, I am afraid, are also getting much into the "mere collector" style. The system of collecting clutches, seems to me to be one we should discourage. Generally the eggs in the same nest are- very much alike, and, as each collector will probably want all the varieties he can get, he will require so- many clutches ; and if all the collectors went in for clutches, each one requiring say half-a-dozen nests of each kind, what would become of our rarer birds ':f There has been a great deal said and too much done about bird protection ; but the persons who are to blame for the destruction of our rarer visitors are these wholesale destroyers, and those who offer pren.iums for the slaughtered victims. A person is so purely scientific that he will not have an imported skin in his collection ; but if he hears of aland grouse having flown from Asia to Britain, he will give five pounds- to the person who can slaughter it. An Act has been passed to protect this bird in Britain, such an Act is unjust ! It is the whim of a iew, carried out at the expense of the many. If land grouse do come, and persons who make their living by killing and stuffing birds, find customers ready to give five pounds each for the birds, such persons have a perfect moral right to kill them, as much as another has to make his living by killing herrings, shrimps, or oxen, unless it can be shown that in his doing sothe country suffers, and only under these circumstances should the law interfere. I should very much like to see the land grouse settle here and breed, and would do everything I could to induce them to do so ; but I have no right if I have the power, to force another person to conform to my thoughts, however much I would that he should'. do so.— .5". Z. Mesley, Beatiinont Park Museicm, Hziddersjield. The Huddersfield Naturalists' Society has decided to publish the first part of a Flora of the district. It will contain the wtiole of the flowering, plants, and will be sent to all societies which have favoured us with their publications. We send this notice because we have not published anything for the last two years, and have, therefore, not been able to make returns for favours received.—^. L. Mosley, Hon. Sec., Beaumont Park Museum. Beavers of Bute. —In "Notes and Jottings of Animal Life," published by Smith, Elder, & Co., will be found not the least interesting of the late Frank Buckland's many interesting papers, called "Lord Bute's Beavers." I presume it is this your correspondent B. Le T. refers to. — Walt'^r H. Short. Localities. — Can any reader of Science-Gossip say what counties Cadnant and Newsham Loch are ii8 HARDWICKKS SCIENCE-GOSSIP. -situated in ? I suppose the first is in Wales and the second in Scotland. — W. D. R. The Wood-Ant {Formica rufa). — I should like to offer a remark or two on Mr. Bowman's paper en the above subject, appearing in the recent number of Science-Gossip. Mr. Bowman says: "I have noticed too that their sense of hearing was ver\ acute, and on the occasion of any uncommon noise in my room, they would, to an ant, rise on their two hind legs in a menacing attitude, as though awaiting the ^approach of an enemy." In a subsequent part of his paper, he again says the same thing, and he seems convinced the sense of hearing in ants is very acute. Now Sir John Lubbock, whom one must recognise as an authority on this subject, says, " I have never succeeded in satisfying myself that my ants, bees, or wasps heard any of the sounds with which I tried them;" but he very prudently adds, "I carefully avoided inferring from this that they are really deaf, though it certainly seems that their range of hearing is very different from ours." How tlien, are the statements of Sir John Lubbock and Mr. Bowman to be reconciled ? For my own part, I think that their sense of touch must be very acute, and that they receive the impressions through the medium of the ground. The tremors of the earth would make the ant aware of any danger in close proximity. The human ear is only able to hear sounds that are caused by a number of vibrations per second between i6 and 38,000. It is quite possible not less than 16 or more than 38,000 may be required to excite hearing in the ant — most probably the latter. — Chas. A. Whatmore. A Remarkable Egg. — A hen's e.g^, French, and a little over medium size, on' being put into a sauce- pan of boiling water cracked, with a slight report, and some of the albumen appeared in the water — the egg itself floating. When the egg was removed from tire water, a considerable quantity of the "white" was left, and a small yolk, perfectly whole. The egg itself showed no sign of being cracked at all ; no one who had not witnessed the occurrence could have believed that the yolk and white had been expelled from that egg. Besides, the egg, on being opened, was found to contain another yolk, and sufficient white to half fill the shell. When the shell was quite empty, careful search disclosed a very small crack in it. This must have closed up perfectly as soon as half the contents had been expelled. Veiy little water had entered the egg. I suppose the air in the egg, which was quite fresh, expanding suddenly, caused the explosion, but why should it expel just half the egg ? There was a thin membrane over the remaining egg-substance. I know that "double- yolked " eggs are not uncommon, but never knew one behave thus. — AT. E. Pope. The Tweezers of Ear-wigs. — Some while back, I think I remember reading that the use of the "tweezers," borne by the ear-wig at the end of the abdomen, was considered somewhat obscure. Last evening, however, I had an opportunity of witnessing the fact that, if these appendages are hardly strong enough for defence, they can be certainly employed for defiance and attack. I was reading by lamp-light, and, looking off my book for a moment, I detected a fine ear-wig advancing over the cover of a book on the table towards some fragments of what I knew to be cheese. When within two inches of these a house-fly alighted on its left and somewhat to its rear. In- stantly round went the ear-wig's abdomen in the fly's direction, open flew the tweezers to an extent I never saw before, and with a half-sideway, half-retrograde movement the ear-wig "went for" that fly. The latter awaited not the attack, but on his adversary reaching the cheese morsels coveted by both, again descended, strangely enough, in the rear of the ear- wig ; the next thing I saw was the fly held up aloft in the tweezers of the latter, a helpless prisoner. Its detention, however, was short, the tweezers soon re- opening, and it flew away, apparently none the worse ; but it came not again, and the ear-wig had an undisturbed banquet. — JViiidsor Hambroiigh. Sucking Eggs. — I see in your March number a method of keeping moths out of eggs by plastering the holes up. A better method — that of late Charles Waterton — consists in sucking up into the egg a solution of corrosive sublimate which will keep it longer than anything else, and from all other animal life. — P. H. Marsden. Wood's Irish Half-pence. — Would some reader of Science-Gossip, interested in Numismatics, give me all information he can about " Wood's Irish Half- pence," as I have recently been presented with a good specimen for my collection. On the obverse is the dexter bust of George I. with the inscription Georgius Dei Gratia Rex. On the reverse, Britannia to the left, seated, and holding a branch in the uplifted right hand, and with the left arm leaning on a harp ; the inscription being Hibernia, 1723, — Hairy George Iiikes, Kirton-in-Lindsey. The Poisonous Nature of Yew-Trees. — Mr. Letts' notes (Science-Gossip, page 309) call to memory a similar case, illustrating the poisonous nature of yew-tree leaves. In Leicestershire, in the year 1882, during the night, eighteen head of cattle, out of a herd of forty, somehow managed to get into a spinney of yew-trees, and when a farm hand's attention was drawn by their agonised bellowing, nine were found to be already dead. The remainder, all, with the exception of two, died within the following fortnight. I believe the leaves act as a narcotic acrid, affecting the spinal cord more than the blood, and it is very evident that the nature of the case greatly depends on the quantity swallowed, for, if taken with, say, three times the quantity of their natural food, the leaves of the yew-trees are innoxious. — C. E. Stott^ Lostock, Bolton. Deilephila galli. — I have a specimen of this moth in my collection, which was caught in 1888, on the honeysuckle, with 6". Hgustri and C. elpenor. — Fi'ederick Glenny, Wisbech, Catnhs. Life-History of Mosquitoes. — I would like to ask through your Notes and Queries, if the length of life of the mosquito {Culex pipiens) in the winged state is known, also if the males and females differ in this respect ? I can find no statement as to their length of life, and individual opinions vary from five days to five months. A friend living on the Gulf coast of Florida, tells me that when fishing off that coast at night, if the wind is off shore, one can fish undisturbed by mosquitoes, at a distance of half a mile from shore ; but if the wind is on shore, one must keep about a mile away to avoid them. He thinks this shows that their sense of smell is more acute than that of sight ? Another query is, if bee-honey is ;chemically changed during its passage from the flower to the comb, while in the honey-bag of the bee? — A, P. Case, Vernon, N. Y. Sagacity of a Cat. — One evening I placed before my Persian cat some hot milk, and was very much surprised to observe her behaviour towards the same. She walked round and round the dish, and occasion- ally put her mouth to the milk to see if it was the HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 119 right temperature for drinking ; at last she put her mouth too far in the dish and scalded her nose, but not to such an extent as to make her forsake all intention of drinking the same : she only altered her mode of taction by using her paw instead of her mouth. She put her paw in the dish with great hesitancy, and several times withdrew it in double- quick time, until at last she found that the milk was the right temperature. It seems to me that pussy must have reasoned the matter out somewhat in this manner : my paw is better protected from harm than my nose, therefore there is least chance of its being scalded. — W. J. Scipio. Lobsters and Trout. — A friend of mine, a good observer, writes to me from Coll Island, Argyllshire, as follows : " I find, by inquiring of the fishermen if they have caught plenty of lobsters or not, I can tell whether to go trout-fishing or not. If the lobsters are moving, the trout are rising, and vice versd.'''' I shall be glad to hear if any readers of Science- Gossip have observed or heard of the same thing. It seems to be almost impossible that lobsters in the sea, and trout in lochs and freshwater streams, can be influenced simultaneously by any known physical agency. — Norris F. Davey, Abergavenny. Flow of Sap — Sunflowers. — I believe that the flow of sap depends chiefly on the degree of temperature, and little on light. Growth goes on in darkness as well as in light, so that sap must flow whether the moon is at full or not, to allow of organisation ; the water of organisation is indispen- sable to growth. Of course, the moon's light would be an additional advantage, as assimilation would be induced, subdued light being most favourable to this process. Assimilation cannot go on in darkness nor in intense light. The position of sunflowers and other heads of flowers is governed by the above laws. The fact that growth is more rapid on the shaded side of the peduncle, or flower-stalk, tilts the disk over in such a position as to enable it to receive the light direct on the florets, whether north, south, east or west, and fixing it so after growth has ceased. The foxglove ■ (digitalis) is a good example. — Thos. Axon, Stochp07-t. Hairs on PuPjI. — Will some one let me know on what pupa I shall find hairs. I have as yet only found them on the empty pupa skin of Orgyia antiqiia. In this case the hairs were distributed over the skin in roughly circular patches of thirty and upwards. In shape they were flat, gradually tapering to a fine point, and so twisted as to have the appearance of a string of beads of gradually decreasing size. Each hair has a minute ball at its base ; and the skin immediately surrounding it, and for about six times its diameter is much lighter in colour than the rest. — A. IV. Watson. Life-history of a Flea.— Fleas lay their eggs in cracks, in cushions, and in boards, or in the midst of dust, and their larvre, which have no legs, and which therefore must live where they have been born, can only exist in consequence of the nourish- ment brought to them by the adults. Were they abandoned they would perish, but they have excellent mothers who never leave them ; for after a flea, should it be a mother, has gorged itself with blood, it seeks its young and disgorges a small quantity, so as to keep them alive. The larvK shut themselves up in silken cocoons when they have attained their full size and undergo their metamorphosis into the condition of nymphs. — " Transformalioti of Insects ,* by Professor Dutican, F.R.S. (/. 419). NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To CORRKSPONDKNTS AND EXCHANGERS. As WC nOW publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un- dertake to insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Quekists.— We must adhere to our rule of not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names. To Dealers and Others.— We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the "exchanges" offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply Disguised Advektisemknts, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken oi owx gratuitous insertion of " exchanges " which cannot be tolerated. We request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or initials) and full address at the end. Special Note. — There is a tendency on the part of some exchangers to send more than one per month. We only allow this in the case of writers of papers. EXCHANGES. Helix iietnoralis, reversed form (see par. in "Notes and Queries"). I'or specimen, send suitable box and label, and ^d. in stamps, to — Wm. Swanston, 4A Cliftonville Av., Belfast. Wanted, a small secondhand compound microscope, in good condition, in exchange for vols. vii. and viii. of the "Boys' Own Paper," unbound, and a few books on chemistry, &c. Apply, stating particulars, to— W. G. Hanson, 5 Church Street, West Bromwich. CoNCHOLOGy. — Offers wanted for a number of bivalves from the river Trent, including Anodonta cygnea and anatina, Unio tumidus and pictorum, and several varieties of same.— Geo. Roberts, Lofthouse, near Wakefield. For exchange, a number of engravings of varieties of unio and anodon. Wanted, pamphlets on antiquarian subjects, or files of old Yorkshire newspapers. — Geo. Koberts, Lofthouse, near Wakefield. Fossils from the oolites of Weymouth and Portland, in exchange for those of other formations. Send lists to— C. W. Freeman, 108 Harbut Road, New Wandsworth, London, S.W. Wanted, a copy of the first edition of Bower and Vine's "Practical Botany." Will exchange micro or other objects. — F. Bewlay, 6 Vine Street, York. "The World of Wonders Revealed by the Microscope" (illustrated), by the Hon. Mrs. Ward, and four vols. "Natu- ralists' World " (three bound), in exchange for good micro slides. — R. C. Chaytor, Scrafton Lodge, Middleham, Yorkshire. Four insect cases, corked and glazed (imitation mahogany), containing about 100 specimens of lepidoptera, British and. exotic, amongst them being machaon, edusa, sibylla, corydon, paphia, nerii (oleander hawk), foreign, very fine ; fraxini (Clifton nonpareil), ditto atropos, ocellatus, bombyliformis, Morpho }>te>telaus (large and magnificent exotic), £. glycerion, E. brome, heliconias, &c. What offers? — Joseph Anderson, jun.. Aire Villa, Chichester, Sussex. A FEW copies of "Mediaeval Yorkshire" (new, 3J. 6d.), in exchange for portraits (Civil War and Commonwealth period), and Yorkshire views (towns, old castles, &c.) to illustrate with (Graingering). No photos. — E. Lamplough, 131 Spring Bank, Hull. Skins of sparrow hawk, owl, guillemot, blackbird, redwing, song thrush, water-hen, water-rail, snow bunting, wryneck ; the lot in exchange for four first issue Jubilee sixpences, or other exchange ; will part.— H. Knight, St. George's Road, Great Yarmouth. Barbadoes earth from Cambridge Estate (authentic), rich in polycystina and spicula ; one ounce in exchange for six good balsam mounts. — Dr. Griffin, 66 Kingsdown Parade, Bristol. London Catalogue, 8th ed. I have a good specimen or two of any of the following, which I should like to exchange for other rare plants, viz. : 159, i8ii^, 369, 370, 586, 588, 604, 620, 72s. 736. 743> 76o> 819, 1052, IOS3, 1333, 1348, 1379, 1394, 1408, 1491, 1558, 1627, 1629, 1645, 1661, 1662, 1605, 1669, 1690. Offers to — W. W. Reeves, 32 Geneva Road, Brixton, S.W. Offered, good violin in case complete, with tutor; cost £2 15J. Wanted, Wood's "Insects at Home," and "Insects Abroad," and good turntable. — Thos. Postgate, 17 Lowther Street, Carlisle. Foreign marine and land shells (various localities) offered for other foreign species not in collection. Also a few of the rarer varieties of British. List sent. F. W. Wotton, Adams- down, Cardiff. Tubes of living marine diatomaceJE. Desiderata, miscel- laneous mounts.— C. H. H. Walker, Mossy Bank, Egremont, Cheshire. American freshwater sponges. Any readers of Science. Gossip living in America who are interested in above, would greatly oblige the writer if, during the summer or autumn months, they would procure and send to him fresh specimens of spongilla with gemmules, preserved in spirits ; small portions in bottles two inches long by three-quarters wide are sufficient. 120 HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. Joseph Clark, F.R.M.S., Hind Hayes Street, Somerset, England. Wanteo. a secondhand microscope. Will give "Journal of the Royal Geographical Society" (1877I, "Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society" (1879), &c. Particulars to — Geo. Parish, 124 Kingston Road, Oxford. Offered, Unio margariti/ef in quantities if desired. Wanted, land, freshwater and marine shells, minerals or fossils. James Simpson, 51 Lock Street, Aberdeen, N.B. Will oologists who are forming collections of both British and foreign birds' eggs kindly send lists of duplicates and desiderata to me. I have many desirable species, side-blown with full data, in duplicate. Foreign correspondence cordially invited. — H. B. Booth, Parkfield Terrace, Frizinghall, Shipley, Yorkshire. . Wanted, foraminiferous material in exchange for good micro slides of foraminifera. — W. G. Hutchinson, Church Bank, Bolton. Wanted, mammalian remains, also fossils from lower London tertiary beds, in exchange for other fossils, rock specimens, &c. Send lists ; also a good geological cabinet. Send nieasure- uients. Geo. E. East, jun., 10 Basinghall Street, London, E.G. Wanted, insects and entomolodical apparaius, in exchange for ova dispar, birds' eggs, including buzzard, snipe, curlew and others, coins, and small vertical engine. — J. H. Duckworth, 3 Mount Street, Blackburn. Clausilia riigosa. Lymnea peregra, L. truncatiela, Physa hypnorwn, Planorbis corneus, P. glaber, P. sfiirorbis, and Valvata piscinalis, in exchange for natural history objects and curiosities. — Robert Walton, 44 Canning Street, Burnlej', Lan- cashire. Offered, twenty slides of carboniferous microzoa. Wanted, Woodward's " Manual of the Mollusca." — J. Smith, l\Ionk- redding, Kilwinning. Wanted, parasites from mammals or birds, or any other kind. Will give insects, birds' eggs, land and freshwater or marine shells, or other micro objects in return. — S. L. Mosley, Beaumont Park Museum, Huddersfield. Wanted, good foreign stamps, in exchange for vols, of SciENCE-Gossii', British shells, or other stamps. — A. G. A., I South Villas, Kensington Road, Redland, Bristol. A SERIES of British marine mollusca, mounted and named, ■with localities (for reference purposes), on small tablets, offered for a series of named species of the British pjlyzoa, hydrozoa, spongida, and entomostraca. — B. Sturges Dodd, 67 Beech Avenue, New Basford, Nottingham. Wanted, seaweeds, fresh or dried, especially specimens of Padina pavonia, Zonaria collaris. Taenia atomaria. Good exchanges in micro slides, marine algae, micro fungi, &c. — H. Hawkes, 300 Bridge Street, West Birmingham. Wanted, Hooker's " Student's Flora," also Babington's and other standard botanical works. — J. H. King, The In- firmary, Southampton. For exchange. — Helix iiiajitscula, H. I\Iacgregori, H. Mackenzii, H. Lonisiadcnsis, H. Xanthochcila, Bulimus de Burghiie, B. fipei-aius, and few species of streptaxis, bithynia, hydrobia, pupina, hylocystis, &c. Desiderata, recent land, freshwater or marine shells not in collection, or fossils from the miocene of the Continent. — Miss Linter, Arragon Close, Twickenham. Productus semiretiadatus given in exchange for any other species ; or Spirt/era striaius and S. glabra given in exchange for any other species of spirifera, or a Terebratula hastata, — P. J. Roberts, 4 Shepherd Street, Bacup. Wanted, good butterdy net and setiing boards in exchange for "Animal Life," &c. — W. J. Weston, Beckley, Sussex. Ananchytes ovatiis (in any quantity), belemnites, micraster, galerites from chalk, also marine, land and freshwater shells, in exchange for fossils from any formation, foreign echini, and starfish, or native weapons.— F. Stanley, Margate, Kent. Offered. — Ross's F eye-piece, Collins' i-in. objective, first- f:lass lens, and 12 parts "Postal Micro, [ournal " (1882-85). Wanted, F. W. Leidy's |'Rhizopods," F. W. Allman's "Poly- zoa," and Smith's "British Diatoms," vol. 2. — J. E. Lord, i6 Mount Terrace, Rawtenstall. Duplicates. — R. rhavmi, C. ednsa, V. nrtico', V. io, P. atalanta, P. cardui, A. cardatnines (male), A. caja, B. gitcrcus, also a few specimens Trichiosotna Incorum (bred). Desiderata, British lepidoptera, coleoptera, and shells not in collection, also foreign stamps. — Mrs. Smith, Jessamine Cottage, Lower Shapter Street, Topsham, Devon. Offered, Science-Gossip for 18/2 (unbound), clean, but without covers. Wanted, Ordnance map of Kent. — E. H., 22 Whitstable Road, Canterbury. Anne Pratt's " Flowering Plants and Ferns." Vol. i. of this splendid work, containing full description and 212 coloured illustrations of British plants, gilt edges, and Glossary of Botanical Terms; will exchange the above vol. for a small printing press with type, &c., or offers. — J. B. Beckett, Trinity PLice, Friar's Lane, Great Yarmouth. Lepidoptera. — Duplicates : lo, .S'. lingnstri (i), tipuliformis, .sambucata, tiliaria, iota, phragmitidis, crocealis, chrysitis, Jariciana, occultana, umbratica, ruberata (2), inquinatellus. — George Balding, Ruby Street, Wisbech. Wanted, a secondhand Merrin's " Lepidopterist's Calendar," in good condition, cheap. — George B.lding, Ruby Street, Wisbech. Twelve sections of wood, six long and six transverse, sent in exchange for two micro slides — acari or pathological pre- ferred. Also duplicates for exchange. — E. Mosley, 36 Robert- son Street, Hastings. Wanted, Ross's best i, ij, or 2-inch object glass, with liberkuhn. State requirements. — Joseph Wray, Everton Brow, Liverpool. First-class micro mounts for selected diatoms, forams, sea- weeds or books. — J. H. Lewis, 145 Windsor Street, Liverpool. S. Specimens of the ordeal bean of Old Calabar, on receipt of stamped directed envelope. — Tunley, Powerscourt Road, Land- port. W.\nted, conchological specimens and books, also natu- ralistic magazines, in exchange for choice micro slides, para- sites, diatoms, double-stained botanical, &c. — R. Suter, 5 High- week Road, Tottenham. Violin wanted, in exchange for first quality micro slide--, consisting of anatomical, pathological, and botanical subjects, injections from monkey, rabbit, cat, &c., or good French triplet. Will give a good exchange in microscopic slides, for a few good pullets. Twenty miscellaneous micro slides, well mounted, small telescope, three specimens silver ore from American mines. Would exchange lot for two first issue Jubilee sixpences. — W. Mathie, 10 Queen Mary Avenue, Crossbill, Glasgow. Small white marble statue of Venus, a beautiful work of art from Rome, bought in Glasgow Exhibition. Would exchange for Jubilee first issue sixpences. What offers ? — W. Mathie, 10 Queen Mary Avenue, Crossbill, Glasgow. Offered, seven varieties of spicules from decomposed lime- stone, all named and unmounted, also spherulite and Pyroxene andesitc, which makes lovely micro sections, in exchange for slides of diatomaces and rock. Also the following object^, which, when mounted, make beautiful slides for the micro: rolled lentic.dina, club-shaped spirolina, trochus-shape rotulites, Polystomella crispa, orbulites, Placetttida asteHsans, num- mulites, various echmi spines, minute corals and shells, very perfect and rare sorts, in exchange for Liitraria obloiiga, Lyonsia NoTuegica, Diodonta fyagilis, Donax polilus, Jso- cardia cor, Diplodonta rotiinduta, Area tetragona, Avicula iarentina, A. hirundo. Pinna rudis, Pectcn nivea. — A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., Bank Street, Teignmouth. Unmounted specimens (in glj'cerine) of the peculiar her- maphrodite nemaiode parasite, Angiostoinuni nigrovenosnin {.'=■ Ascaris O'C Leptodera nigrovenosa), ixom. the limg of rana, in exchange. AUo a few unmounted specimens in the same medium ol the trematode parasite, Polystoinutn iniegerrimiun, from the bladder of rana. Wanted, well-mounted slides of proglottis of taenia, showing internal structure ; cross section of earth-worm, showing typhlosole ; amphioxus, whole ; or any well-mounted and good histological (not human) or pathological (human) slides, or good type specimens of the following, with localities : Acme lineata. Helix lamellata, H. obvoluta, H. revelata. Vertigo lilljeborgi, V. 7nonlinsiana, V. alpestris, V. substriata, V. pusilla, V. tumida, V. ajigustior, Linincea glutinosa, L. involuta, Succinea virescens, S. oblonga, Hyalina (lonites) pura, H. radiatula, H. excavata, Testacella halio- tidea (shell), /. scutubim (shell), or mounted and good .'lides of the following crystals : haemoglobin, haematin, urea, oxalate of urea, uric acid, kreatinin, oxalate of lime, hippuric acid, ammonio-magnesic phosphate, leucin, tyrosin, inosite, cystin. — J. W. Williams, .Mitton, Stourport, Worcestershire. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. " The Probable Cause of the Displacement of Beach Lines " (second additional note) by A. Blytt. — "Nineteenth Annual Report of the Wellington College Natural Science Society." — "I'he Microscope." — "British Dogs," Nos. 27, 28, 29. — " Gardeners' Chronicle." — "The Century Magazine." — " Cosmic Evolution," by E. A. Ridsdale (London: H. K. Lewis, 136, Gower Street, W.C.) — "Canadian Entomologist." — "Wesley Naturalist." — " On the Anatomy and Life History of ISIoUusca Peculiar to Australia," by Rev. J. E. Tenison Woods, F.L.S., F.G.S. — "The Selbourne Magazine." — "The Entomologist." —"The Century." — "Book Chat."— "Feuilles du Jeune Naturaliste." — " Journal of Microscopy." — " Greeley." — "Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club," &c. &c. Communications received up to the i2Th ult. from: W. R.— T. D. A. C— J. C— H. D.— W. S.— G. M.— W. G. S. — C. W. F.— A C S.— P. F. T.— C. B. L.— W. W. R.— J. E. B. — F. B.— C. F. G.— W. E. W.— J. W. W.— R. C. C— A. F. T. — H. P. M.— J. B. Y.— E. L.— J. A.— G. R.— J. R. B. M.— W. G. H.— J. S.— J. C— G. P.— T. P.— J. W. W.-J. W.— C. H. H. W.— J. F. H.— T. S.— J. H. D.— G. E. E.-W. G. H. — H. B. B.— Miss L.— H.S. D.— A. G. A.— J. H. K.— D. I'..— J. T. I. -J. E. L.— H. H.— F. S.-A. D.— F. C— P. J. R-- L. J. "S.-F. W. G.-E. H. R.— H. V.-A. J. R. S.— W. M. — W. H. T.— E. M.— R. S.— J. H. L.— M. F. D.— G. E.— J. w. W.— J. A. S.— E. H.— W. S. S.-J. B. & Co.-J. W.— C. H. B.— &c. &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 121 THE FLORA OF THE PAST. No. iir. By Mrs. BODINGTON. ,IIE Lycopods, re- sembling giant club- mosses ( ' ' ground- pines " of Canada), make their first appearance in the Devonian forests. In structure they much resembled the modern iLycopods, except that the con- trivances resorted to for supporting a club-moss of tree- like size, approxi- mate in " structure to the stems of exo- genous trees of modern times. The plan is, in short, the same, except that the tissues employed are less complicated." Another link for the evolutionist ! These Lycopods can only be compared in their curious stiffness to the trees found in Noah's arks, whilst they decidedly exceed Noah's ark trees in clumsiness, as may specially be seen in any repre- sentation of Sigillaria Brownii, a carboniferous species. We now pass on to what is probably to most people the most interesting period in the history of fossil plants, the Carboniferous age, when our greatest accumulations of coal were formed. The wide inland seas of the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous Period in America and Europe, were replaced by vast swampy flats, moist and warm, swarming with insects, millipedes and scorpions, and tenanted by the first air-breathing vertebrates, the Labrinthodonts, animals having affinities with both frogs and newts, but now entirely extinct. In the Carboniferous strata of the Rocky Mountains deep-sea conditions still persisted ; a few leaves seem to have floated out to sea, but there is not a vestige of coal. No, 294.— June 1889. The trees which above all others seem to have been the most valuable in the production of coal were the Sigillariis and the Calamites ; the former related to the Lepidodendra of the Erian and the modern club- mosses, and the latter to our horse-tails. The Sigillarise exhibit the enormous variety of species in Carboniferous times, more than eighty species having already been counted. So much do they "grade" towards other forms, that they seem to make even Sir J. W. Dawson's anti-evolutionary convictions totter. He goes so far as to say that he believes " there were three lines of connection between the higher cryptogams and the phtenogams (flowering plants) ; one leading from the Lycopods by the Sigillaria; ; another leading by the Cordaites, and the third leading from the Equisetums by the Calamites. Still further back the Rhizocarps united the characters afterwards separated into club-mosses, horse-tails and ferns." He hastens to say that he "does not make these remarks in a Darwinian sense ; " but methinks I see the last stronghold of "special creation" tottering to its fall. The Sigillarioe have " tall pillar-like trunks, often several feet in diameter, ribbed like fluted columns, and spreading at the top into a few thick branches clothed with long scale-like leaves. They resemble the Lepidodendra of the Erian age, but are more massive, with ribbed instead of scaly trunks, and longer leaves." These giant Lycopods derived their distinguishing name from the rows of scars of fallen leaves making seal-like impressions on their stems. The wood is of a very low type of structure, although the trunks are sometimes five feet in diameter, and consists "principally of cellular and bast fibres with very little true woody matter." To support a thick trunk of so primitive a character, very complicated roots were necessary ; and these, under the name of Stigmaria, were long considered as the stems of some aquatic plant. They usually start from the trunk in four main branches, then regularly bifurcate several times, and then run out into great cylindrical cables running for a long distance, evidently intended to G 122 HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. anchor the plant firmly in a soft and oozy soil. They had long cylindrical rootlets so articulated that when they dropped off they left regular rounded scars. Under every bed of coal is found a bed of clay filled with these singular roots, shewing that the first step towards the accumulation of a bed of coal was the growth of a forest of Sigillarice. Indeed, in some of the coarser and more impure coals we can see that the mass of coal is made up of flattened Sigillarioe, mixed with vegetable debris of all kinds, from the undergrowth of ferns and other plants which grew beneath their shade, and often vast quantities of Lepidodendroid spores. These forests gradually sank down in the marshy soil, some of the trees still re- maining erect ; other forests grew above them, so that in the course of ages as many as seven or eight forests grew one above the other, and all sank at last and were buried. This growth of successive forests took place in the Lignite Tertiary as well as in the ■Carboniferous period, and gives us 'the impression of a vast lapse of time. Sir J. W. Dawson believes that amongst the eighty species of Sigillarise, a "great range of organisation must have been found, some of which will eventu- ally be classed with the Lepidodendra as Lycopods, while others will be found to be naked-seeded phano- gams, like the pines and cycads." This statement must also doubtless be received not in a Darwinian, but, so to speak, in a " Pickwickian sense." We now come to the important group of Calamites ; these are tall, cylindrical branchless stems, with whorls of branchlets bearing needle-like leaves, which spreading from the base form dense thickets, like .southern cane-brakes. In their mode of growth and fructification they resemble gigantic horse-tails, but the manner by which their stems are strengthened resembles that of exogenous woods. It would seem from the way in which dense brakes of these Calamites have been preserved, that they spread over low and inundated flats, and formed fringes on the sides of the great Sigillaria forests. Many beautiful plants intermediate between Calamites and Rhizocarps grew in these brakes, bearing whorls of graceful leaves of various shapes. The Lycopods and Calamites have been familiar to us from our childhood, there being something in their resemblance to our familiar club- mosses and horse-tails which impressed them on the memory. But the strange family of Cordaites are by no means so well known ; they are unlike an34hing we are accustomed to, and belong to one of those intermediate groups, or connecting links, which remind a zoologist strongly of those generalised forms of mammals of the Eocene, where the characteristics of orders now distinct are inextricably combined. The Cordaites "approach closely on the one hand to the broader leaved yews, like the Gingko of China, and on the other hand have affinities with Cycads, and even with the Sigillarix." In the formation of their wood they show transitions from the imperfectly formed stems of Sigillarice to the more highly organised trunks of modern conifers, and in the young twigs of the balsam-fir the ordinary Cordaite formation of wood may still be seen. This consists of a " large cellular pith, divided by horizontal partitions into flat chambers ; this pith was surrounded by a thick ring of barred or scalariform tissue, and as the stem grew in size a regular ring of woody wedges was formed, with disc-bearing tissue like that of pines." They were beautiful trees, with their leaves in some species growing in thickly-set spikes, but perhaps oftener developed on each set of the branches, in a manner very unlike any modern plant that I am acquainted with. These many-nerved leaves had rows of stomata or breathing pores, and attached by somewhat broad bases to the leaves and branches ; the fruit consisted of "clusters of nutlets, often provided with broad lateral wings for flotation in the air, sometimes covered only with a pulpy envelope." These trees had great reproductive powers, producing numerous seeds in long spikes or catkins. Many Conifers are found in the Carboniferous period ; none as yet bearing cones, but all apparently related to the modern yews and spruces. Some slightly resembled the modern Araucarias, others had broad fern-like leaves like those of the Gingko. Pro- bably they were in the main "inland and upland trees, mostly known to us by drifted trunks borne by river inundations into the seas and estuaries." Last and not least, where beauty is concerned, there was a wealth of exquisite ferns in these old coal- forests, and noble tree-ferns such as tropical forests alone possess now. Of the "eight families into which modern ferns are divided, four at least go back to the coal period." Their spore cases show the usual series of transitional forms, from a low to a high type, and those with the simplest spore cases, without a jointed elastic ring, are most commonly found in the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous. The succeeding Mesozoic age as far as the Upper Cretaceous period, presents fewer points of interest in its fossil botany. The Triassic and Permian for- mations show a time of " great physical disturbance, more especially by great volcanic eruptions discharging vast beds and dykes of lava and layers of volcanic ash and agglomerate. The thick beds of sediment that had been accumulating in long lines along the primi- tive continents had weighed down the earth's crust. Hence in the Appalachian region of America we have the Carboniferous beds thrown into abrupt folds, their shales converted into hard slates, their sandstones into quartzite, and their coals into anthracite," and similar treatment befel the coal fields of Wales and of Western Europe. The flora and fauna of Paleozoic times gradually die out, to be replaced by other species of our old friends the Calamites, by enormous numbers of conifers resembling the yews and spruces, and at last in the Lower Cretaceous by cone-bearing pines ; whilst in the animal world the giant newts HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. pass away, leaving only small and humble represen- tatives, and the great reign of reptiles sets in, reptiles which exceeded in size any other animal before or since ; carnivorous reptiles, flying reptiles, and reptiles which by almost imperceptible transitions became the ancestors of birds. These uncanny, hot and fier)' times seem to have suited these cold-blooded creatures, but the puzzle remains why they|should have died out whilst climatic conditions remained to all appearance the same. Mammals too first become known to us in this age ; feeble creatures giving little promise of future greatness, but even in the Jurassic age with jaws and teeth sharply differentiated into the placental and implacental types of dentition. No such appal- ling break occurs in the world of plants, where tran- sitional forms abound at every stage. We have no direct link between the earliest placental and im- placental mammals, and their common' ancestor, if indeed they had one, and are not independently descended from amphibian or_ reptilian forms also unknown. The only family which conspicuously distinguishes the Mesozoic age is that of the Cycads ; the modern Cycads survive only in hot climates, though in such a manner as to show their original universal distribu- tion ; they are found in Africa, India, Japan, ?tIexico, and the West Indies. In Mesozoic times they flourished in Greenland and at .-Spitzbergen, and indeed vegetation seems to have flourished equally well from the Arctic Circle to the Equator, and to have been alike all over the known world from Siberia to India. The Cycads are well-known objects in our hothouses, with their short fat stems and crown of fern-like leaves. In the celebrated "dirt- beds " of Portland, the Cycads seem to have formed the undergrowth to the forest of pines, and their short thick stems are known to the quarrymen as "fossil birds' nests." Even the Cycads had their precursors in the fern-like leaved Noeggerathia of the Carboniferous, and are themselves related to the higher exogens by the structure of their stems. There is, however, no real advance in the type of vegetation till we reach the Lower Cretaceous deposits, when the genus Sequoia makes its appearance, and with it the true cone-bearing pines. The history of the Sequoias is most interesting ; the genus Sequoia is now only represented by two species, one the celebrated " Big- tree" of California, and the other the Redwood of the Pacific slopes in California and Oregon. The Sequoias present a striking instance of appa- rently sudden development, analogous to the ap- parently equally sudden development of important orders of mammals in the Eocene. In the Cretaceous strata Sequoia appear with twenty-six species, four- teen of which are found in the Arctic zone. The genus was then, and is now, the grandest represen- tative of the whole family of Conifers ; the last remnant of Sequoia gigantea (Wellingtonia) contains some of the largest trees that have ever grown on earth, the tallest now standing measuring a height of 325 feet, and a girth of from 50 to 60 feet. In the case of one of the trees the number of rings of growth indicated an age of about 1300 years. The Redwood of California and Oregon {Sequoia sem- pei-vireiis) is only second to Sequoia gigantea in height, some of the trees measuring 300 feet. The seeds of both these giant pines have been brought to Europe, and now flourish there. In Tertiary times, however, the Sequoias required no importation, for their fossil remains have been found at Spitzbergen in 78° north latitude ; at Atanekerdluk in Greenland, in 70" N. ; in Devonshire at Bovey Tracey (a species resembling Wellingtonia) ; in the Hebrides ; on the Rhone ; in Italy and Germany ; and in Asia can be traced along the Siberian steppes to Possiet, to the coast of the Sea of Japan, and across to Alaska and Sitka. Their remains constitute the largest part of the great Lignite Tertiary deposits of the Canadian North- West. In the Jurassic period the earliest known examples of endogenous plants are found, bamboo and screw- pine like forms. The screw-pine or pandanus is really a humble relation of the palms. Some species of pandanus have fragrant blossoms, and with the endogens must have come gradually a world with flowers. It is not therefore surprising to find that in the higher portion of the Jurassic series we have a true butterfly (allied to the tropical American genus Brassolis). Strangely enough in this same Upper Jurassic series are found the humble beginnings of several of the highest forms of life, the first butterfly, the first bird and the earliest mammals, all probably appearing to the last degree insignificant amid the teeming life around them. The extraordinary development of the highest forms of plants and animals did not take place simultaneously. The dicotyledonous angiosperms (oaks, maples, beeches, &c.) which represent the highest possibilities of plant, as the placental mam- mals do of animal, life, appeared in the Upper Cretaceous. [To be continued.) TRICHODINA— A STUDY AMONG THE INFUSORIA. THE Infusoria at one time included a large number of microscopic animals of varying degrees of organisation, and not only did it include animals, but also what we now believe to be plants. Since then the term has been restricted to a class of the Protozoa, the lowest of the great animal sub- kingdoms. No differentiation into cells exists in the members of this class ; they are furnished with one or more vibratile cilia, and possess a nucleus ; they reproduce themselves by division or, in some cases at G 2, 124 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. least, sexually. Such, then, are the main character- istics of the Infusoria. With such a wide basis as this, the individuals are very varied. Even among unicellular organisms, however, there may be differ- entiation of parts, and we find some with a structure which is complex compared to the lower members of this class. Nearly every amateur microscopist is familiar with the beautiful little bell animalcule (Vorticella), common in every brook. This represents one of the higher members of the class. Although it is spoken of as unicellular, yet the various regions of its sub- stance have certain functions. The stalk, which attaches the bell to a weed, consists of a central contractile thread, surrounded by a delicate sheath. Around the summit of the bell a double row of cilia circulate, and these guide food into its mouth. The disc from which the inner row of cilia springs may be withdrawn inside the body, and this is effected by the contraction of a certain part of its substance. In the substance of the bell is a clear space, the walls of which contract and expand, apparently driving fluid contents to different regions of its body, like a small heart. Vorticella is a highly developed Infusorian ; but, on the other hand, it may be mentioned in passing that certain of this class are much more primitive, such as those often called Monads. These are free swimming forms, furnished with one or two long cilia, not furnished with mouth, contractile disc or stalk. There is an Infusorian closely related to Vorticella, found attached to aquatic animals, sometimes de- scribed as parasitic. It is called Trichodina, and]one species {T. viitrd) is found on the little black Plana- rian, common in every pond. It may be as well to briefly describe this latter organism, as, though so common, it attracts but little attention to the amateur. It is a little leech-like animal, black in colour, some- what less than a quarter of an inch in length, which glides along the bottom of the pond. Its body is capable of considerable change in shape, now elongating, now shortening itself. Examined under the microscope, it is seen to have no suckers ; cilia on the margin of its body are in constant motion ; the dark alimentary canal may be seen branching through the semi-transparent walls ; along the anterior margin is a row of little black eyes. Planaria sometimes presents a wasted appearance; minute transparent bodies cover its surface. These are not warts, but the little Trichodince, which attach them- selves to its surface. Trichodina may best be examined by placing the Planarian to which it is attached under a cover-slip, so as to limit the movements of the latter, which is restless, and will wander about the slide unless means be taken to prevent it. The Infusorian may now be examined with higher power (about a quarter of an inch). Like Vorticella, it possesses a disc which can be inverted, and most are seen in this condition as small, transparent, truncated elevations, seen best along the margin of the body of Planaria. At each side of the flattened summit there is a small depres- sion which indicates the position where the disc is turned in, A row of fine long cilia lie closely applied to the body of its host, and every now and then a wave-like movement is seen to traverse through them. These long cilia are the active organs of locomotion, and when these animals swim freely, as sometimes they do, the cilia are seen to be in constant motion. If watched carefully, the creature will be seen to suddenly change its form, and appear somewhat lop- sided ; this is caused by the eversion of the disc. The disc, with a little care, is seen to be fringed with a row of cilia ; it slopes downwards from above the mouth, which is situated on the upper free surface of the bell. The mouth is surrounded by a ciliated peristome or ring, which also surrounds the disc. Thus the arrangement is very similar to what we have in Vorticella. The mouth being situated on the free surface, it seems hardly possible that this creature feeds on the tissues of its host. This, then, is not a case of parasitism, but rather a case similar to that of the pea-crab, which lodges in the shell of the oyster. Trichodina is benefited because of the support, and also perhaps the activity of its "host";* while Planaria is little the worse. The stalk on which the bell of Vorticella is borne is contractile, and functions as a muscle. We may compare it to a long muscle in the human body. Its origin or fixed attachment is the plant or weed to which Vorticella is attached ; its insertion, or attach- ment to the movable portion, is into the bell. Contraction draws the bell nearer to the stem to which Vorticella is attached ; or, speaking ana- tomically, the place of insertion nearer the place of origin. To carry out the analogy further, I may say that, just as a muscle may exchange its attachment to a fixed part for its attachment to a movable part, so in Vorticella, when it uses its stalk for a locomotive organ, the attachments of insertion and origin are constantly changing.! But to return to Trichodina : we here find a further differentiation. Some of the little organisms become detached from their host in the course of examination, and can be observed with the under-surface upwards. They then appear circular, fringed v/ith the basal row of cilia which, it is most likely, are actively working, and which have been previously described. In the centre there is a circular hole, and round this a ring of protoplasm. External to this again, short bars of protoplasm radiate, which mark off small areas fading gradually into the general hyaline protoplasm as they pass * I believe the terms "guest" and "host" are applied in biology to the parasite and the animal or plant it feeds on. I use the terms here because I can find no others convenient to replace them. •f- I have never seen mentioned in any book the fact that Vorticella can walk in this manner ; but that it can and does do so, I can vouch for, having seen one progressing in this singular manner along the cover-glass of a slide. HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OS SIP. 125 towards the circumference. The similarity of this arrangement to the muscles in the iris of the eye is very suggestive. The inner ring contracting would close the orifice, the short bars contracting would dilate it. This arrangement of fibres acts here as a sucker by which Trichodina attaches itself to its host, and by which it can detach itself. We understand how it is that the little guest keeps its hold in spite of the movements of its host. Trichodina, then, is an example of one of the higher Infusoria, and, although belonging to the lowest sub-kingdoms, it still is developed perhaps as Fig. Z4.— Trichodina mitra. a, side view ; b, underview ; c, Planaria covered with trichodina. highly as a single cell can be. We must, however, bear in mind that differentiation in function is not the same as differentiation in structure, and that, although certain parts of the protoplasm of Trichodina have certain functions, the structure may be microscopically the same. One part, indeed, may have a mixed function ; thus, although one part is "muscular," it may also, to some extent, be " nervous " as regards function. It is of course understood that here in a unicellular organism, muscular structure or nervous structure is an impossibility. In conclusion : the little organism that is the subject of this paper is only one of the many in- teresting members of this group. It has some near relatives which attach themslves to other organisms ; some to other species of Planaria, and one, I believe, to Hydra. Its more distant relatives are numerous, and include Vorticella and its allies. Bernard Thomas. SOLWAY DUNES IN APRIL. By the Rev. Hilderic Friend, F.L.S., Carlisle. T the embouchure of the river Eden, some twenty A miles west of Carlisle, situate on the Solway Coast, is the quiet little watering-place known as Silloth. The air is remarkably charged with ozone, and as the soil is composed of sand, the heaviest rainfall does not make the air damp for any lengthy period. During the summer months Silloth is a favourite resort for the quiet-seekers and health- seekers of Carlisle, and even in the early months of the year a few invalids, who cannot get farther south, find the place congenial if the east wind is not blowing. Naturalists are not superabundant here, and we never hear of their quarrelling because they are so numerous that there is not prey enough for each to share in Nature's spoils. Were they plentiful, it is certain that the banks of the Solway would soon have little that is new to reward them for their pains, but a solitary worker, to whom nothing comes amiss, may find even in this barren spot enough to occupy all the little time he can snatch for a holiday during the sunny days of April. It may interest some of the readers of this journal if I put together a few notes which I have made here between April 5th and I2th, and which fairly represent the work to be done by the naturalist, unless he be sportsman or fisherman as well. Of ornithology and of dredging I have nothing now to say. Landing at the station, the stranger finds himself surrounded by sand-dunes. In front of the little town much of the sand has been levelled down, and is now bound together by the roots of the common sand-sedge (C. arenaria, L.), which is the only carex to be found in any quantity here. Farther away the sand is kept together by quantities of sand-grass or marram, and these two plants are predominant features in the flora. Just now we may find the following plants in bloom on the dunes or in the damp ditches close by :— The celandine (with its cluster-cup, ^cidium ficaria), ladies'-smock (C. pratensis, L.), with the hirsute and flexuous species of bitter-cress,, the tiny whitlow grass, flowering by the thousand on the short turf, the whole plant not an inch high, the common chickweed, red dead nettle, gorse, thale- cress (S. Thalianuni), daisy, colt's-foot, scurvy-grass (C danica), and a few other common forms. Plunging through the sand we hope to find something on the water-mark, and at once begin to turn over the materials left by the receding tide. Among the alg.-e we find nothing rare. Long lines of brownish- green or greenish-brown matter tell us of the fate of hundreds of plants of serrate and common bladder- wrack {Fitciis serratus and F. vesiculosus), which are- intermixed with the fronds of Halidrys, whose air- bladders are so attractive a feature in this form of seaweed. When you have mentioned Laminaria and. Corda, the green Ulva latissitna, a couple of the floridese and the pretty coralline, the list of marine algre found on the Solway is nearly exhausted. Other stragglers of course are found now and again, but as they are all dead or dying, they can seldom be obtained in a good state for preservation. Most of those which I have mentioned, however, may be found growing near the harbour. Somewhat disappointed, we turn our attention next to the minuter forms of life around us, and soon discover that there is a good deal to interest us here. 126 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Euglena abounds in many of the ditches, and is always a popular subject with the microscopist, but just here on this slimy bank we have a greater treasure still. When exploring this region last summer, we discovered a patch of something which seemed to present an unusual appearance, and found it to be a fruiting mass of Cylindrosperimnn macrospcrmiim, Ktz. If we examine it now, however, we shall find it is not in fruit, and it will be interesting to observe the process of cell division, and search for the cilia on the heterocysts. In Bennett & Murray's new and valuable work on " Cryptogamic Botany," we find the plant arranged under the Nostocaceae, and an illustration given after Cooke. This is the best indigenous "find" we have yet made at Silloth. Of the other algae (including Ulothrix, Conferva, and other large forms) I will not speak at present, as some of the forms, as well as the diatoms, need a little more attention under the microscope before they can be arranged and named. The desmids are of special interest, and even at this early date are becoming plentiful. The conchologist will be sorely disappointed if he hopes to make a collection of shells during his stay here — either of land or marine species. I have seen an occasional dead shell of Helix nemoralis, with H. caperata, and even now a slug or two may be seen on the move, while the pools a little inland will yield some species of Planorbis and a few other common forms, but on the coast the work is very unattractive. The little rissoas, hydrobias, and other molluscs found so plentifully at Cleethorpes, Cardross, or elsewhere, are apparently unknown, as are also the larger forms of venus, mya, scrobicularia, nassa, natica, aporrhais, solen, and others. When you have written mussel, cockle, tellina, periwinkle (both flat and pointed species), and added an occasional pecten and top-shell (Zl zizyphinus), your list is well-nigh exhausted. Anemones and their allies are not to be found on the shores ; but if you turn over the heaps of seaweed, thousands of sand- hoppers ( Talitrics loaista) will bound in all directions, and a peculiar fly of a dirty hue, covered with hairs, will allow itself to be entrapped and preserved in spirits till you can examine it. The diptera, by the way, are interesting just now, and I have about half- a-dozen species awaiting identification. The larva of a beetle (Cilkniun laleralc) is busy at present, and later on the imago will be slaughtering the sand- hoppers. The most profitable of all work, however, is that of the bryologist. I am not aware that the mosses of the Solway have yet been worked systematically, but I am sure from my own casual gleanings on three or four days in April that the list is a fairly good one. Many of the forms are of course exceedingly common, and the rarer species would take a little time to discover, but then the common things of life are not •without their interest, and we perhaps ought to be more grateful than we are for those humble creatures which have no fads or fancies of their own, but will grow wherever they can find a home, and do their best to brighten the world and make it attractive and gay. Thanks then to the common Polytrichum, whose pretty capsules and prettier male flowers help to make our dunes look gladsome, and thanks again to the tufts of Ceratodon whose purple stems tend so much to relieve large tracks of sandy waste. The hypnums and bryums too are in fairly goodi force ; ubiquitous Funaria, though not very abundant, is here. Ba7'kda szibulata mixes with Bryum cccspiticiiun and the feathery fronds of Hypmini. velutimim and allied forms. Some mosses which are common a few miles away, appear to be rare here — hence we have not yet seen the beautiful Dicraniim scoparmm ; and while a few tufts of Toriula muralis have been observed, Grlmmia pnchinata has so far eluded our search. Bartramia and Atrichum grow with other pretty plants around Skinburness. These few jottings may serve to show what is the character of the minuter fauna and flora of the Solway during April, and it is perhaps by such records as these that we shall be able in the course of time to gather where we can best find the special kind of objects for which we may be seeking, as well as get together an exact account of the natural products of various localities for the use of future workers. I present these few notes to the Johnstone who shall in future write " The Natural History of the Western Border." A VENERABLE NATURALIST : Mr. JOHN RALFS. By William Roberts, Author of " The Earlier History of Boohsellittg.'" THE lowest forms of vegetable and animal life, the links, in fact, between the two great king- doms, afford beauties of a very striking and multi- ' farious character. There is scarcely any form or colour which we do not here find. Living in seas, rivers and pools, on rocks, trees and herbs, these minute organisms are endowed with a vitality as perfect and potent as their more conspicuous con- f^eners. They are essentially a class that appeals only to the painstaking naturalist who has worked his way into the field of microscopic wonderland. The two distinct, but in many respects analogous, divisions, desmidiae and diatomacea;, are peculiarly rich in diversity of form and variety of colouring. These two primary sections now include several hundred distinct species, regularly classified into divisions, and again arranged into genera. Less than fifty years ago, there were only about eight distinct species of desmidias known to science ; and probably there is no more remarkable incident in the annals of botany than the rapidity with which this HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 127 class of study has developed. The most careful and painstaking, if not actually the only, English student of these lower forms of life in the " forties," was Mr. John Ralfs, who, in spite of his eighty-two years and the infirmities of old age, still possesses a keen and strong interest in all botanical matters. To the Edinburgh Botanical Society, at that time the most important body of its kind in the world, belongs the honour of having had read at its meetings a series of unusually interesting and original papers on Desmids and Diatoms. These papers, contributed at the suggestion of the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, contained the results of Mr. Ralfs' painstaking and minute enquiry into the nature and attributes of these two orders. From the almost entire absence of any systematic arrangement, they were naturally in a most chaotic state of nomenclature. The difficulties, therefore, with which Mr. Ralfs had to contend were of an exceptional character. In addition to this, the desmidise had been for some time a' common territory, claimed both by zoologist and botanist. When in the elementary stage of his studies, Mr. Ralfs considered that the desmids properly belonged to the animal, and diatoms to the vegetable, kingdom. Careful observation alone caused him to reverse' his opinion, and to regard the position of diatoms as doubtful, having, as they had, as much right in the one king- dom as in the other. Edinburgh in particular, but Scotland generally, possessed during the " forties " a botanical constella- tion, which, whether for fame or ability, has probably never been eclipsed. There were, for example, Hooker the elder. Walker Arnott, Balfour, Leighton, Dickie, Graham, and many others with a universal fame. They were, moreover, men who heartily appreciated Mr. Ralfs' labours, and it is due to their memories to state that the courtesy with which they received some of his startling, and at that time revolutionary, theories in reference to these organisms, was only rivalled by the unanimous approval that scientific men at home and abroad welcomed the result of his labours, even where his itheories were not immediately accepted. Mr. Ralfs' first ; paper was read at the Edinburgh Botanical Society on February loth, 1842, Professor Graham in the chair. It was entitled "A Paper on four new Species of Desmids." It may be here pointed out that Mr. Ralfs was born at Millbrook, Southampton, September 13th, 1807, and that he studied medicine, walked the hospitals, and in due course became a properly certificated surgeon. Possessing, however, a com- petency, which would have been very considerable but for the scandalous betrayal of a trust by a near relative, Mr. Ralfs does not appear to have ever regarded his profession as a primary means of liveli- hood. Botany, forming an essential part of his medical curriculum, soon developed into a speciality with him. And it was the thoroughness with which he had entered into the subject that caused one of his examiners in surgery — noted for his severity and "flooring" proclivities — to not only compliment the young student, but to predict that some day he would be known as an eminent botanist. It is almost need- less to say that this prediction has been verified. Even at the present moment Mr, Ralfs has an abun- dant store of anecdotes relating to his student-days — of times, in fact, which carry us back to the stirring period which preceded the great Reform Bill, Mr, Ralfs' first literary work of importance was published, by subscription, in 1839, by Longmans. It is an analysis, after the method of Lamarck, of the "British Phrenogamous Plants and Ferns;" and from the list of subscribers it will be inferred that Balfour, Graham, Hooker, and other eminent Scot- tish botanists knew of his abilities : Hooker's name is down in the list for two copies. This little analysis was favourably received, and although it is based on the essentially artificial system of Linnaeus, the writer of this paper can testify, after several years' usage, as to its accuracy, conciseness, and perspicacity. That Mr. Ralfs was regarded as a botanist of considerable promise may be inferred from the follow- ing facts. In 1 841 the Professorship of Botany at Glasgow became vacant through the resignation of Dr. W. J. Hooker. Among the candidates were Dr. J. H. Balfour and Dr. G. A, Walker Arnott, equally able and competent men. Both were corre- spondents of Mr. Ralfs, and each applied to him for a " testimonial." Balfour's application arrived first, and it was, of course, promptly answered. When Arnott's came, the only thing which Mr. Ralfs could do was to give him a similar recommendation, stating, however, that Mr, Balfour had previously requested such, but that as the attainments of each were very high he could not refuse the one at the expense of the other. Balfour secured the appointment, and retained it until 1845, when, succeeding to the vacancy caused by the death of Graham at Edinburgh, his former rival Arnott was elected to the Glasgow post. Arnott was an unquestionably clever botanist, but dogmatic obstinacy was his besetting sin. His controversial quarrels were not often dignified, and, when driven into a corner, he became abusive over very trifling matters. Mr. Ralfs' contributions to the Edinburgh Botani- cal Society range over a period of rather more than ten years, i.e. from 1843 to 1854 ; and although these contributions are only about one dozen in number, it must be remembered that in some instances one paper was read in four or even more instalments. Abstracts of these papers were published at the time in the "Gardeners' Chronicle," and other scientific periodicals. Mr. Ralfs had no immediate or remote ideas of publishing a monograph on either the des- mids or the diatoms. It became, however, tin fait accompli, through the following circumstances. Shortly after Mr. Raifs commenced contributing to 128 HA RD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. the Edinburgh Botanical Society, Mr. A. Hassall, upon the recommendation of Borrer and Jenner, opened up a correspondence with Mr. Ralfs, asking his assistance in naming or identifying specimens that he may at times find. It was agreed that the "Conjugatae" should be the special study of Mr. Hassall, and that Mr. Ralfs should take up the desmids and diatoms. It was also agreed that neither should interfere with the other's work. Hassall's letters were constant and numerous, sometimes seven being received in as many days. The arrangement went on pleasantly for a considerable period, until Mr. Borrer, in the course of a letter, incidentally asked Mr. Ralfs if he had heard of Hassall's prospectus for a " History of the British Fresh-water Algae, including Descriptions of the Desmids and Diatoms." A copy of the "pro- spectus " was not sent to Mr. Ralfs, with whom he had been corresponding, for some time after its ap- pearance. Borrer's letter came as a thunder-clap upon Mr. Ralfs, who wrote to Hassall, and severed the epistolary connection. In answering Mr. Borrer's letter, Mr. Ralfs, in a moment of anger, declared, ijiter alia, that he had a good mind to write a book on the desmids. Borrer made no immediate reference to the "threat," and it had faded from Mr. Ralfs' thoughts when he received a remarkable " re- minder." This was in the form of a letter from Borrer, not only urging him to prosecute the notion of writing an exhaustive history of the desmids, but enclosing a list of names of all the most eminent scientific men of the day, who had expressed, iina voce, their willingness to support such a work from Mr. Ralfs' pen. Further than this, Mr. Borrer enclosed two ;^io Bank of England notes to cover the initial expenses. ( To be cojicluded.) ORGANISMS IN CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS. I N the following paper is given a brief account, or, I should better say, a number of suggestions as to the nature of a few organisms, found in some chemical solutions : 1 . Solution of Sodium-Hydrogen Tartrate in strong Nitric Acid. — Several bottles containing this solution had swimming in them, and partly also attached to the inner surface of the glass, a dark -brown fluffy mass. This turned out to consist of an entangled mass of septate hyphse. They seem to be representa- tives of an arthrosporous bacteriad, of which Fig. 86 shows the zoogloea-stage. Fig. 85 shows a bit of the ordinary mucelium. In Fig. 87 spores are apparently being formed, whilst Fig. 88 shows the germination of spores or zoogloes;, most likely of the latter. 2. Photographic Solution of 13 parts of Bromide of Ammonium in 63 of Water. — In this solution likewise an entangled mass of hyphaj was present. A number of the latter occasionally, for a good Fig. 87. X 580. Fig. 88. X 580. Figs. 85-88. Organisms in solution of sodium-hydrogen tartrate in strong nitric acid. distance, run in the same direction, and thus form long strands, which again are entangled with each HARD WICKE' S SCIENCE- G OSS IP. 129 •other to a greater or smaller extent (Fig. 92). Scat- tered in between the single hyphoe are numerous -spherical bodies, varying very much in size (Fig. 91). They are occasionally aggregated together to form colonies (zoogloea-stage ? Fig. 91). The hyphoe have no transverse partitions, but are filled with round, 3. Photographic (clearing) Solution of Ferrous Oxalate (made by adding Ferrous Sulphate to Potassium Oxalate, and diluting with Water). — In this solution there was also an entangled mass of hyphse. It consisted of light and dark portions. The lighter portions were usually covered with a flat Fig. 89. Nat. size. Fig. 90. X 5 So. Fig. 91. X 580. Fig. 92. X 330. Fig. 93. X 580. T''<;^ A B Fig. 94. X 580. Fig. 95. — Nat. size, a, surface view ; b, lateral view. Figs. 89-92. — In solution of bromide of ammonium in water. Figs. 93-93. — In solution of ferrous oxalate. highly-refractive granules (spores? Fig. 91). With the unaided eye we can easily make out darker-brown portions in the mass of hyphae (Fig. 89). They con- sist of darkly-coloured hypha (Fig. 90) which have ^very strongly-thickened cell-walls, and are closely 'entangled with the other colourless hyphae. film on one side, on which were to be seen some dark spots (Fig. 95), consisting of numerous dark-brown spherical bodies (zoogloeoe ? Fig. 94). The colour- less hyphce were septate, and contained numerous round refractive granules (spores? Fig. 9:^6). The darker hyphce, likewise septate, but of a dark-brown I30 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. colour, contained such only in some portions, others being quite devoid of them (Fig. 93 a). Numerous round bodies were lying between the separate light and dark hyphre, some with highly-refractive portions inside ; occasionally four, or more or less, were attached to each other (Fig. 93 c, spores?). To see whether the organisms were actually growing in their different solutions, and had not come in accidentally, small portions of each were put into well-stoppered bottles, and after six to eight weeks they had grown quite considerably. These organisms all seem to belong to the class of the bacteria, but I have not been able to ascertain either their names or anything about their life-history. I would be very thankful for any suggestions on the subject. I have got any amount of material, and I will be very glad to exchange some of the same with ;any of the readers of Science-Gossip. Otto V. Darbishire. BaUiol College, Oxford. THE BEE AND THE WILLOW. By G. W. BuLMAN, M.A. THE willow-haunting propensities of bees are conspicuously displayed in the spring ; they are probably familiar to many. It is Grant Allen who observes that "you hardly ever see a willow catkin in full bloom without a bevy of its attendant fertilising insects." It is to the theory implied in this word "fertil- ising " that I wish to call attention ; I cannot think that the willow depends chiefly on bees, or even that it is at all frequently fertilised by the same. It is rather to be believed that it is wind-fertilised, like the majority of dioecious plants. I cannot bring forward conclusive evidence ; but what I have, points emphatically in the above direc- tioH. While I set forth my small quantum of evidence — the fruits of a few moments' observation on a spring afternoon — let me call the attention of others to the matter as a question requiring solution. In the first place, given a species bearing its stamens and pistils on separate plants, how is insect fertilisation to be accomplished? Obviously by the insects passing frequently from a plant with the one sort of flowers to a plant with the other. If we imagine them making alternate visits first to a male and then to a female flower in regular order, then each of the latter has a fair chance of fertilisation. But if a bee visits say fifty male flowers, and then goes and pays the same number of visits to female flowers, only a few of the first visited of the latter will probably be fertilised. If a bee gets its fill on one sort of flower, it will accomplish no fertilisation at all. We should be inclined to infer, h priori, from our general knowledge of the habits of bees, that one of these latter would happen. Let us, however, see what the bees are really doing. Here by the river-side are the willows in full flower. Very large numbers of bees are buzzing about the male catkins of those large bushes ; on the neighbouring ones with female catkins are consider- able numbers, but not nearly so many as on the former. In the first case they are gathering pollen ; their thighs are laden with the golden grains : in the latter honey alone is presumably their object. I do not know whether bees usually carry on these two operations at the same time or not ; but in tliis particular case, since the bees on the female blossoms have no load of pollen, it may be presumed that they have not recently been on the male catkins, and are not therefore fertilising the former. I do not wish it to be inferred from this single observation of the bees' habits that bees with loads of pollen do not often fly to female catkins ; it is rather brought forward as a point for further investigation. Now both of the above facts — the difference in the number of bees on stameniferous and pistiliferous plants, and the absence of pollen loads on these visiting the latter — point to the conclusion that the willow is not as a rule fertilised by bees. And when we reflect that every passing breeze may carry cloud& of the fertilising dust to the stigmas, the inference seems obvious that the willow is frequently wind- fertilised, and that it could get along very well without the bee. Yet we find Mr. Grant Allen asserting that "the willows depend entirely for the due setting of their seeds upon winged allies." * And if the willow is really wind-fertilised, the existence in its flowers of honey is — on the bee- selection theory — anomalous. Also, according io- certain upholders of the same theory, insect visits- are a disadvantage : " The very same insect interference which proves so beneficial to insect-fertilised plants is the deadliest danger of their wind-fertilised allies, and is guarded against by a profusion of minute devices." f As is well known by students of Virgil, the bees'' frequent visits to the willow were noted some 1900' years ago ; to-day, in spite of the insect's selection, its flowers are neither blue nor complex. What caa we think of selective action applied perseveringly for some 2000 years without producing any effect?' Upholders of natural selection consider — somewhat unreasonably, surely — such questions unfair ; they are wont to answer that there has not been time ; that your two thousand years is but a drop in the bucket required. Such answers are most unsatisfactory. The geo- logist who tells us that rock-masses many miles \w * "Knowledge," Feb. 23, 1883. t Grant Allen. " Knowledge, ' June 8, 1883. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 131 thickness have been piled up by the long-continued action offerees at present in operation is called upon to show the same producing like results at the present time. And he does so. He shows us how a continent is being lowered so many inches in a century, and at what] rate a deposit is being formed ; he points out evidence of the results produced by the action of his forces within historic times. When we ask for evidence of the result of the bees' selection at the present time, or within two thousand years, the answer is, " More time is required." Is this fair ? Has there not been time ? If the changes are so minute, then an infinite length of time is required to produce any considerable change ; it requires an infinite series of infinitesimals to make a. finite quantity. Anotlier answer perhaps is that the variations have not been in the right direction. Such an assertion is, •of course, unanswerable, and can be used on many ■occasions. Yet one upholder of the bee-selection theory requires nothing more for the development of blue than that the flowers should acquire a blue tinge, "as all the upper parts of highly-developed plants are apt to do." And it may be suggested as curious that bees should so perseveringly visit flowers not varying in the right direction, while others have — according to the theory — varied abundantly in the \vay of blueness and complexity. The willow has likewise an important bearing on Mr. Henslow's theory of the development of flowers by the direct stimulus of insect action.* Mr. Hen- slow considers the willow an anemophilous plant ; and he believes such to arise through the neglect of insects : "With regard to the origin of anemophilous flowers, there is every reason to believe them to be due to the neglect or absence of insects ; that as these have brought about brilliant colours or other kinds of conspicuousness, so their absence has allowed flowers to degenerate and become inconspicuous, the result being either self- fertilisation or anemophily." f And yet it would be diflicult perhaps to name ^ plant much more frequented by bees than the willow. " Behold ! yon bordering fence of sallow trees Is fraught with flowers, the flowers fraught with bees." THE CHINESE INSECT WHITE WAX. INSECTS are important factorsin natural economy. Every one has heard of the cochineal, so long utilised as crimson dye ; and Mr. A. Hosie recently supplied another illustration of the commercial value of insects, in an interesting address on Chinese Insect White Wax. This is most extensively manufactured * See "Floral Structures." International Scientific Series, vol. Ixiv. I t " Floral Structures," p. 270. ^ at Chien-Ch'ang, a province in Western China, which is the principal habitat of the insect-producing tree, known by the Chinese as " ch'ung-shu." In the east of the province, the tree, which is an evergreen, with opaque, glossy, dark-green leaves, of an ovated and pointed shape, springing from the branches in pairs, is known by the name of " pao-ke-tsao," or crackling tree, from the noise it makes when burning. Late in May, or at the beginning of June, the tree puts forth clusters of tiny white blossoms, which, later in the season, give place to dark, bluish seeds. The chief insect-producing country is Chien-Ch'ang Valley, but by cultivating the insect-tree, and placing upon them insect-galls, these curious wax-producers may be propagated in other districts, although they deteri- orate in quality. In Chia-ting the insects are divided into two classes — "la-sha," wax-sand, reddish-white in colour, highly prized as wax -producers ; and " huang-sha," yellow, or brown sand, considered useless. As early as March, the galls, or insect-seed cases, brownish excrescences resembling peas in shape, may be seen, adhering to the twigs and bark of the tree. When opened, these cases are found to contain an aggregation of minute whitish-brown animalculae, each possessing six legs, and a pair of club antennas. Enclosed within most of the galls is a cocoon, con- taining a chrysalis, the movements of which are discernible through its delicate covering, whence emerges a tiny black beetle, having six legs, and being armed with a long proboscis, which terminates in a pair of pincers. This beetle, known by the Chinese as niu-erh, or "buffalo," is accused by them of devouring, or injuring, the wax-insects, but Mr. Hosie thinks this is open to doubt. He carried home with him several of the galls, containing minute cocoons ; and as each, in the course of a few days, developed the maligned beetle, whose habits he care- fully watched, he found that if left undisturbed within the gall the "buffalo" — probably so named on account of his ungainly " personality "—continued to burrow, by aid of his proboscis, into the inner lining of the seed-case, which he tore with his pincers, and from which he apparently derived sustenance, heed- less of the hurrying crowd of busy insects, which travelled about iu all directions, apparently un- molested. He believes that the " buff'alo " effects a wise purpose in natural economy by boring an orifice in the case, and thus enabling his tiny companions to effect their escape on to the wax-tree. When the galls are plucked, an orifice is disclosed, by which they are attached to the tree ; and on a number of these cases being gathered and carefully examined, the pincers of the beetle were seen to pierce a circular hole, which gradually became suffi- ciently large to admit of his escape. He however did not emerge thence immediately, but continued to burrow in the inner lining of the case, and the wax insects instantaneously commenced to crawl out and ^32 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIF. investigate their environments. The buffalo dis- dained to consume any insects, even when forced upon him ; he turned aside and resumed his burrow- ing operations, and when forcibly expelled from the gall, was evidently unable to fly, on account of the still imperfectly developed state of his wings. Whatever the purpose of this beetle, certain it is that the Chinese prefer his absence, and give the highest prices for those galls in which "buffaloes " are fewest. There is a third insect, known by the Chinese as *' /a-^w/," " wax dog;" thus contemptuously desig- nated because it is supposed to prey upon the insects. This is a caterpillar, of brownish hue, something like a small bean in shape. About this creature there are one or two ingenious hypotheses. Does it possibly create the gall excrescences containing the insects ? and is it the offspring of the beetle ? which probably remains amongst the branches of the tree for some time, being unable to fly far, and may then propagate its species. There is an annual exodus in the spring of insect- bearers, hurrying from the mountains of Chien-ch'ang to Chia-ting, laden with insect galls to place upon the wax-trees. These carriers usually travel by night, but those from the more remote districts journey day and night, bearing the galls, placed loosely on trays within long bamboo baskets, through which the air permeates freely. In Chien-ch'ang these insect galls are packed in paper parcels, usually containing about sixty packets to the load. At the halting stages the insect carriers open and spread the contents of their packets in the coolest places they can find, so that the insects may not be forced to escape from the galls, which, however, usually lose an ounce in weight before arrival at their destination. The white wax-tree, .known to the Chinese as " Pai-la-shu," has its habitat more especially within the districts of O-mei, To-shan, and Chien-wei, in the prefecture of Chia-ting ; it will occasionally grow in the north of the province, but is not known in any other localities. This tree attains a height of about six feet, and its branches spring from the gnarled top of the thick, stump-like stem ; the boughs rarely exceed six feet in length ; they are extremely pliant, and, being thus much swayed by; wind, are not found sufficiently strong for the reception of the insects, until the third year of their growth. The tree is deciduous, the foliage depends in pairs from the branches, and is light green in colour, serrated, ovate, and pointed in shape. The insect seed-cases having been conveyed into the wax-tree provinces, are assorted into little packets of twenty to thirty, and enclosed within a leaf of the wood-oil tree, the edges of which are secured together by tying them with rice-straw, and the packets are then suspended beneath the branches of the wax-tree, the leaves of which are roughly perforated with a coarse needle, to enable the insects to pass through them to the boughs. On quitting the seed-cases, the newly emancipated wax-makers crawl from the branches on to the leaves, where they pass a period of about thirteen days ia acquiring vigour of limb and strength of growth.. They then appear to moult, casting off a hairy cover- ing which has enveloped them during this season^ and thence descend to the younger branches, to which they attach themselves firmly by the mouth ; later the upper portion of the branches are also laden with insects, which remain motionless where they first take up positions ; and the wax secreted by thena begins to encrust the boughs and twigs, like a coat- ing of "sulphate of quinine;" these singular insects being found to construct a series of galleries extending from the bark of the tree to the outer surface of the wax, which gradually becomes thicker, for a period of about a hundred days, when it has attained a depth of a quarter of an inch. The Chien-wei insects manufacture wax in the space of seventy days, bat the quality is inferior. In the evenings and mornings the insects appear less tenacious in their hold of the bark : but at noonday they adhere closely ; and it is at this time that the owners beat the stumps of the trees with thick sticks to dislodge the caterpillars or " wax-dogs," which they assert are destructive to the wax-makers. When the branches become laden with wax, the caterpillar is unable to crawl to the insects, and the belabouring is discontinued. Variable weather, rain, or heavy wind, occasions great havoc amongst the insects ; more especially in the earlier stages of their existence. When the wax is perfected the branches are cut off, and the wax carefully re- moved by hand, and placed in iron vessels ; the wax, when at melting heat, rises to the surface, whence it is skimmed, and placed into circular moulds ; when cool it is ready for market. Wax adhering too closely to the bark to be removed by hand, is 'prepared by a. similar process, the boughs being irtimersed with the wax ; but this is not so white as the first lot, nor so. good in quality. The insects which have fallen to. the bottom of the vessels are now placed in bags and pressed to extract any remaining wax ; and as the Chinese are an economical people, the refuse is utilised as food for their pigs. This white wax is used principally in the manu- facture of candles. Tallow is found to melt at a heat of 95°, whilst to dissolve the solid white wax a temperature of 160° Fahr. is required. Some of the wax is produced in the neighbourhood of Ch'ung-k'ing, where it is cus- tomary to mix a certain proportion of the wax with tallow, to give the latter consistency ; these candles, being afterwards dipped in melted wax to improve their appearance. As the wax-tree — which is said to become exhausted in about seven years — does not grow so far east as the province of Chung-k'ing, the wax-makers are removed from one insect-tree to. another, and consequently their produce deteriorates, in quantity and in quality. E. GOATLEY. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 133 ACCESSORIES TO THE MICROSCOPE. A Growing Slide. THERE are very few, if any, microscopists who have not at some time or another felt the need of a thoroughly reliable growing slide, one which would permit of an unintermittent and ample supply of aerated water being equally distributed around the objects under observation, and at the same time permit of its being placed upon the table of the microscope for observation, &.c., for any period of number of objects vegetating on the same slide, as the worker may desire. To enable the reader to understand its structure, I would refer him to Fig. 97 ; and if he wish to make one for himself, he may readily do so, if he possess a sixpenny wheel glass cutter, or diamond, some sheet glass, and marine glue, mechanical skill being not an item for consideration. Fig. 97- — A is a piece of ordinary glass, such as is used for common windows, 6 inches long by 2 inches in width, which constitutes the slide ; b b are two 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fig. 96.— A, slide ; b b, sides of slide ; c, reservoir ; d, cover to slide ; e e, shoulders on cover; r, blotting-paper with cells and covers. Fig. 97. Fig. 98. time, without injury by exposure, or inconvenience. To the student working in algae, and other micro- scopical plants, such a slide as here described is indispensable. I have therefore taken up my pen to afford such students the benefit of the description of one which I have made, and had in constant use for some months past, and which, being simplicity itself in structure, I can most confidently recommend as being perfectly satisfactory in its results, whilst affording the further advantage of accommodating any slips of the same kind of glass, 4f inches long by I inch in width, cemented edgeways unto A at about: \ of an inch from the edge (the use of these will be explained hereafter) ; C is a piece of glass tubing about 2^ inches long by about Ij inch in diameter — mine is a portion of an ordinary reading lamp chimney, and as I am writing principally for the benefit of amateurs, I will explain how to cut, or rather to break, the tubing where he desires. First file a clean cut around the tube, then apply a highly-heated iron 134 HARDWl CKE ' S S CIENCE- G O SSI P. bar upon the file cut, and draw it slowly and evenly round the tube ; by this means I have managed to get it to part so evenly as to require but little facing afterwards ; cement the tubing to one end of the slide ; this constitutes the reservoir. Kext take a piece of the best blotting-paper, or^ filtering paper will do equally as well, cut it of such a width as will permit it to lie evenly between the sides B B on the plate A, and also allow of its expansion when saturated with water ; if this be not particularly attended to the paper will rise up from the plate at the sides and distant from the sides of the slide, for convenience in making observations, as represented in Fig, lOO. For the sake of cleanliness, I have a lid or cover to my slide : see Fig. 98. u is a piece of glass of the same kind as slide, 5 inches in length and 2\ inches wide, hollowed out at the end so as to shut up close to the reservoir, and also to allow the syphon to pass on to blotting-paper. On the slide E E are two shoulders, consisting of glass about fg of an inch in width, cemented flatways on D, at such a distance as to permit of the sides B B in a Fiq 99. 0000 o o o c Fig. 100. v///;/.-wy//y;-'.- ■'/,w.w,-/'-v>;;','.y.'^////.^ i' m '' •": ....,,,..,,. ^.,.g..,.,_...,„..,. . , . , ,..,. ■ Fig. loi. Fig. 102. cause considerable inconvenience ; let the paper be •of such a length as when it is placed against the reservoir it will project one inch beyond the slide at the opposite end. This end of the paper should be cut to a point, so as to lead the water from the plate ■or slide into a receiving vessel ; next cut the cells in the paper with a very keen steel punch such as is used for leather, the size depending on the use for which they may be required ; for algx> I have two sizes, some one quarter and others three-eighths of an inch. The number I leave to the operator's decision, but if he has two rows on one slide, which he may without any in- convenience, be sure and have them in line, and equally Fig. 97 to come between them, so that the cover may slide easily backwards or forwards as required. This completes our slide, with the exception of the syphon, which may consist of a single thread of wool or worsted. I use the latter. I will now proceed to describe how to use it. First remove the cover ; select your object, and have it in perfect readiness ; remove the paper and well saturate it with water, and replace it evenly on the slide ; then take a piece of glass about J inch in width and lay it across the slide upon the paper at the end farthest from the reservoir to dam up the water, that the cells may be kept filled during the process of putting the HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 135 objects into them ; when you have charged the cells with the objects, float or rather slide your thin covers on them as fast as you charge them, supplying water to them with your pippet as required : by following these instructions the enclosure of air bubbles will be avoided ; when completed, fill your reservoir ; apply the syphon, and replace slide cover ; then place the slide upon a stand of sufficient height to permit of a receiving vessel being placed under the paper as marked F in Fig. 96, and your work of setting up is completed. I have a stand on which I keep two other slides, which are supplied from a reservoir which is unat- tached to either except by the syphons ; the reservoir being supplied from an ordinary oil-flask, the neck of which is allowed to pass down into the reservoir, and which by a little arrangement supplies the water as fast as it is drawn off by the syphons. Here, perhaps, I had better explain the arrangement, which is as follows : I have a cork in which I have a very fine notch cut lengthways, running itself out as it reaches the largest end ; then I have a piece of small glass tubing passing through the centre of the cork, and projecting from each end of it about 5 of an inch at the end of the tube which enters the reservoir when the flask is inverted, at about \ of an inch from this end of the tube I have a notch filed into the tube which will admit the air when above the surface of the water, and thereby promote a down flow of water when required. This arrangenient I find does very well. In conclusion, I would suggest that on the cover of the slide a strip of paper should be pasted with the cells on slide definitely numbered ; this is to facilitate the record in note-book of the transitional changes observed in each cell as they take place, for after all the most practical and efficient apparatus will be of little value unless such observations be registered for future reference. The great inducement which has led me to bring this matter before your numerous readers is the fact that I am personally indebted for much pleasure and instruction to the self-sacrifice and disinterested labours of others, and I would like to emulate them, though it be in ever so small degree. A. T. DOWELL. Stroud, Gloucestershire, THE BEAVER PRESERVE IN THE ISLAND OF BUTE. IN December 1879, whilst staying at Rothesay, I paid a visit to the Beaver preserve belonging to the ]\Iarquis of Bute. The place selected for the experiment of beaver-breeding is a part of a narrow strip of fir plantation where it is crossed by a small burn, which rises in the moor above, and flows by Kingarth to Kilchattan Bay. When I reached the spot, I met *' the keeper," an elderly working man, whom I found very obliging and intelligent, and agreeably communicative on the subject of his charge. He was a crofter as his father had been before him, living and labouring on the three acres of ground attached to his dwelling. He informed me that some years previously the Marquis had four beavers, and had them enclosed, but two of them died in confinement, and the others having found their way out of the enclosure were traced to some distance and at last found dead, one on the moor and the other near Mount Stewart House, about two miles off. The keeper, although he did not hold office at that time, had watched the animals when they were alive, and, being unable to work much on account of rheumatism, had given some attention to their habits. The Marquis afterwards suggested that he might act as keeper to a fresh lot ; and this having been settled, another batch of eight beavers was ordered fronij America. Only four, however, survived the journey. This was in 1875. When, in the company of my guide, Thad reached the preserve, and had stepped over an iron railing two feet and a half high, which forms the enclosure fence, I was introduced to "Jack," a splendid specimen of the porcupine, who had a wooden kennel and a special iron railing to himself. By opening the roof of the kennel we roused up " Jack," and persuaded him to go out to his little courtyard for some exercise. Here he munched a potato or two with evident relish, and when touched or disturbed in any way, he raised his quills, as a turkey cock elevates his tail, and stalked about in a high state of excitement. He repeated this threatening manoeuvre whenever I made any sudden movement, at the same time giving two or three "stamps " with one of his hind feet on the wooden floor. He seemed to be in a chronic state of irritability. But to the beavers : commencing at the north or upper end of the burn and enclosed space, the first thing that attracted my attention was the great number of felled trees, which to all appearance had' been cut by chopping with an axe. Every felled tree, too, was lying either across the burn or with its top pointing towards it. Along the course of the burn there were five or six small dams formed by weirs built apparently of branches and twigs, and so covered with sticks that it was not easy to see at first how the water was kept from running through instead of over them. Many of the felled trees were lying on the weirs or resting against them, forming sui?- porting buttresses, and nearly all of them had been stripped of their bark, the inner part of which is used by the beavers for food. In most cases a foot or two of the lower part of the trunks had been left untouched, sometimes on account of its toughness, and occasionally because the lower end, having been tilted up in falling, could not be easily reached by the beavers. The lowest and principal dam is the chef- f 136 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. •(fmuvre. The weir is about forty feet in length, and has a beautiful S curve from the top of the boundary parapet wall at the east end to the opposite bank. The curve near the south-east end has its convex side facing up the stream, and it is at this point that the current is strongest during floods. The parapet boundary wall here has an iron railing along its top to prevent the animals from escaping. The weir is nine feet in height from the bed of the burn, and twenty feet broad ^\. the bottom ; and its surface is so level that I could not point to one spot where more water was running over than at another. The framework is made up of branches and twigs and small logs, all mixed up in an apparently confused manner, but so effectually that no water escaped except over the top. The modus operajtdi was not at first apparent, but as we walked along the top of the weir, in crossing to the other side, the keeper pointed out that although we were treading on a lot of loosely piled sticks, yet, im- mediately below our feet, the interstices were com- pletely closed up with mud and sods of grassy turf, tlie whole forming a very compact mass. There are two principal buttresses to this weir. One tree had been made to fall up stream and hit the weir about its centre, or near the centre, of the concave side of the upward curve, and the other had fallen from the western bank in an oblique but upward direction, and i'ts top rested very near the first. The purpose was evident at a glance, and the supports could not have been better and more accurately placed by human hands. In order to study the habits of the beavers, the keeper had watched them very often, in summer particularly, which is their working season, when the wind was favourable for concealment in some suitable spot — generally amongst the branches of a neigh- bouring fir-tree. The utmost caution was necessary, as they are so shy that they will not show themselves on any account, so long as they are aware that there is anybody near them. The working hours he found were from 7 p.m. till 7 a.m. In the evening they start from the house and burrows at the lower dam in a line, like a gang of labourers, swimming up the dams and climbing over the weirs, and every now and then two or three drop out of the line and remain at certain spots where work is to be done, till the whole gang is pretty equally distributed along the course of the burn. The keeper thinks they have a store of clayey mud collected at some part of the dam, and when they want a supply they swim to the place, take a piece in their fore-legs, and, holding it to the breast, swim back to the weir at which they are working. There they push it in between the sticks, and along with the mud, or before it, they stuff in pieces of grass sods. On the edge of the large weir I saw grassy sods that had been newly put in, and masses of mud that had been shoved in after them. The mud retained the shape so familiar to us in the thick mud of our country roads that has been pushed aside by the surface-man's " clawt," the curved wrinkles being quite distinct. There was nothing, however, to lead one to suppose that the tail had been used in the operation. A considerable number of stones of various sizes were placed at intervals amongst the sticks, to add, no doubt, to the solidity of the structure. The largest I noticed was about eight inches in diameter. For some time the beavers had been adding to the height of the weir at the rate of one foot per annum, and it had now got to the level of the copestone of the wall, which runs along the south side of the plantation, and if raised higher, the water would run over the top of the wall. As it is, little jets of water were coming through at one or two places where the lime had given way. About half-way up the dam, and close to the west bank and out of the way of the current in floods, is the beavers' house. It is a rough-looking heap of mud and sticks, but principally mud, whereas in the weir the sticks are more prominent, probably in con- sequence of the mud having been washed away by the running water. The building, which is somewhat dome-shaped, rises about four feet above the surface of the water, which at this part is five feet deep. There are two entrances, one on the lower and the other on the upper side, but as they are some distance under the surface — in fact near the bottom — they could not be seen. On the top are a lot of loosely piled sticks, placed over the air-hole to keep the ventilation open. The interior communicates by a built passage with a burrow in the bank. There are also several burrows in the bank on the opposite side of the dam. The entrances to these are beneath the surface of the water, and they run up the bank for from six to ten feet. The position of the chamber of each burrow is marked by a few loose sticks on the surface of the ground, like a half-built crow's nest, which cover the air-hole as in the house. The keeper could not tell the use of these burrows. The house, he knew, was used principally for rearing the young, and he suggested that the burrows might be used by the males in the nursing season as places to which they retired to be out of the way. He also suggested that they might be used as places of refuge when the beavers were disturbed in their house. I' so, they are little better than traps, for the animals could be dug out with spade and mattock in a few minutes. Immediately above the house, but still in the large dam, is the store of food for the winter. It consists of a pile of sticks with the bark on, each from two to four feet long, and about three or four inches thick. They are mostly, pieces of the branches of the trees that have been cut down, and are built apparently from the bottom of the water, which here is about four feet deep. A small tree lies across the pile in one direction, whilst another from lower down has been made to fall upwards, and a third obliquely downwards. These trees hold the bundle down and prevent the sticks from floating and being carried away by spates HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 137 When the animals wish to feed, they swim under water to the store, take a stick and strip it of its bark. The inner part of the bark is eaten, and the peeled sticks are used afterwards in the construction or repair of weirs. Above the lowest and principal dam, and occupying the whole course of the burn within the enclosure, are the other smaller dams. At no point is the burn seen running in its own bed. The uses of these dams are various. They serve as canals for floating down logs and branches. They also help to break the force of a flood before it reaches the main dam, and they afford the beavers their natural and most convenient means of locomotion in passing up and down the stream, as well as more numerous places of refuge in case of attack. I said that mud and clay were carried between the fore-legs and the throat or breast. • When pieces of wood and stones are brought out of the water, they are carried in much the same way. The keeper has seen the beavers scrambling up the outside of the house with small logs in their " arms," and when one stumbled it fell forward on its breast and face, without letting go its hold of the log. I visited the preserve again in January 1882. The number of beavers was now supposed to be over twenty. All the trees in the enclosure were cut down, and the keeper had a supply of logs and branches of willow trees, a portion of which he placed inside the enclosure at intervals as required. The place at which he deposited the logs is a considerable distance up the bank from the dam, perhaps fifty yards, and the animals had consequently to travel on land that distance to reach their supplies. Sometimes they cut pieces off, and carried them down to the store, and sometimes it was found that they fed on the bark where it lay. Although the beaver is so shy, it uses its powerful teeth for defence when occasion requires. Some time ago, one escaped from the enclosure, and was caught in the plantation not far off. It showed fight, but was secured by throwing a sack over it, and lifting it over the railing. Whilst this was being done, it partly disengaged itself, and imtaediately fastened its teeth on everything that came within its reach, not excepting legs and arms. It even caught the iron railing and held to it most viciously till it was pulled off by sheer force. I paid another visit to the preserve in April 1885. The keeper was still at his post, but things were somewhat altered. The marks of the beavers were so few, that it was supposed that the number was much reduced. Indeed, the keeper was not sure if there were half-a-dozen left, and for anything he knew they might be all males or all females. Foul play was suspected, but it may be more charitable to suppose that when the trees within the enclosure were all cut down, the beavers' chief occupation was gone, and that their mode of living afterwards, how- ever well they were fed and attended to, was some- what more artificial and unnatural. However the beavers may have fared, it was quite certain that some dastardly savage had put poor "Jack" to a cruel death, and his kennel was unoccupied. W. ' Steuart. GOSSIP ABOUT FORAMINIFERA. ALTHOUGH I should be sorry to attribute in- tentional misrepresentation to Mr. F. Chapman, he undoubtedly lays himself open to the imputation when he so grossly misquotes me. If he will carefully read my paper on Foraminifera, he will see that I do not say that I am "an expounder of curious facts." Nor is he a whit more happy in quoting others. Dr. Carpenter states that, upon the Polystomella in question, Fichtel and Moll bestowed the name iVautihis striato-ptinctatus, and that in 1822 it was Lamarck who conferred upon it the generic distinction Polysto7nella. Subsequently, for some inscrutable reason, Ehrenberg abandoned both generic and specific names, changing them to Gcopoittts stella- borealis. That this latter commends itself to not a few, is proved by the fact that it so frequently occurs in books : as one example, the " Micrographic Dictionary." As regards EtiiosoIeJtia squamosa, var. hexag07ia, I am not desirous of emulating Mr. F. Chapman's aggressively dogmatical tone, but may nevertheless be allowed to say that I decline to endorse his dictum that the •' cavities depicted should be imbrications." Except that, relatively to the raised ribs, the hexa- gonal cells are undoubtedly hollows, they are neither "cavities" nor "imbrications," but parts of the convex surface of a globular body. Far sooner would I admit an error, and if possible rectify it, than seek to perpetuate it. I therefore gladly in part accept Mr. F. Chapman's correction. My association of the Porifera with kindred groups of lowly organisms arose from the fact that when I wrote my paper, several years since, they were generally so classed. I am, however, fully alive to the fact that more modern zoologists, not all, have long since adopted Dr. Grant's designation of Porifera. It is some thirty-three years since Dr. Carpenter wrote that Mr. Carter asserted that sponges "begin life as solitary amcebse, and that it is only in the midst of aggregations formed by the multiplication of these, that the characteristic jr/£i;/^ crystalline style has been found in any portion of the enteric tract in any Gastropod, I would be very much obliged to him for the reference or references, since I am ignorant of any such. — J. IV. Williams. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 141 Natural History Transactions of Northum- berland, Durham, and Newcastle-on-Tyne. — Part I, vol. X. has just been issued to the members, snd consists of 219 pages, of which 132 are occupied v/itli a Catalogue of those Specimens of the Hutton Collection of Fossil Plants that have been presented to the Natural History Society by the Council of the ^.lining Institute, and are now exhibited in the Museum of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The collection was commenced by Mr. Hutton about half a century •ago, and previous to that time there was no public or •even extensive private collection of these fossils in Newcastle. A large number of the specimens was ■obtained from the shale above the Bensham Colliery at Jarrow, which is exceedingly rich in fossil plants. The catalogue is enriched by extensive and valuable explanatory notes by Mr. Richard Howie, curator of the museum, who was entrusted with its preparation. A synopsis of the coal seams in the Newcastle district is also included, which gives the depth of the pits from the surface, and also the thickness of coal. The catalogue is illustrated with woodcuts and litho- graphic plates. This part also contains the Presiden- tial Address to the Members of the Tyneside Naturalists Field Club for the year ending May 1887, giving the results of the various meetings during that year, and also the address of the president for the year ending May \%%%.—Dipton Burn. Llandudno Mollusca. — The following addi- tions to the list of Llandudno Mollusca may not be uninteresting; for complete lists hitherto, see Q.G.C., vol. iv. page 206, and vol. v. No. I. Hyalina pura. Alder, and its var. margariiacea, Jeff., not uncommon on the Great Orme. Pupa marginata,\ Drap., plentiful on the coarse grass-stems of the Morfa. Cochlicopatrideiis, Pult., abundant with Hyalina piira. This is not an actual addition to the list, as it is chronicled in Rimmer, page 179,' as a Llandudno shell. It seems, however, to have been a lost species ihere for many years, and I take this opportunity of recording its re-discovery. The occurrence of C. tridens in Wales was unknown to Jeffreys (at any rate when he wrote B. C. vol. i.), and Llandudno is, as far as I know, the only Welsh habitat on record at the present day. There also occurred in the same spot four adult specimens of Cock, lubrica, var. .hyalina, — Brockton Tomlin, Pembroke College, Cam- bridge. Arion ater.— In the "Naturalist," 1888, p. 284, Mr. W. D. Roebuck has described a variety of A. ater from Nottingham as var. cincrea v. nov. This appears to be the same variety that I found at Bedford Park, and described in Science-Gossip, 1S85, p. 224, as of a very dark slate colour, with a dark brown margin. But Westerlund has described a var. cinerea oiA. ater, which, unless it is possibly really referable to subfusais, will have priority ; so I would suggest that cinerea, Roeb,, be changed to cine- rascens. Another variety, combining brown and black, is found at Chislehurst, and may be called seminiger. It has a very dark brown mantle and a black body.— r. D. A. Cockerell, West Cliff, Colorado. Coronella L/Evis in Hampshire.— Mr. Field's note on page 91 rather surprised me, because C. lavis has long been known in Hampshire ; and when I turn to back records, I find Mr. Field recorded it himself for that county in 1887. In the same year he re- corded Lacerta viridis from Margate, which was more extraordinary, as it is quite incredible that that lizard is native there. I lived some years at Margate, and never saw any sign of it.— r. D. A. Cockerell. BOTANY. CEdogonium.— I beg to make the following cor- rections in my paper on CEdogonium (April number), which I got to hand very late, as I was away. In the explanation to the figures, " Androgonidia" has to stand for " Androgonia " (Fig. 72 : 8), and " Antherozoid" for " Anthrozoa " (Fig. 72: 11).— O. V. Darbiskire. Alchemilla vulgaris in the South.— In the February number of this paper, Mr. Lamb seeks information of Alchemilla vulgaris, which he has found in Kent. In June 1887 I found this plant on the borders of the Broadhouth Woods, near Seal Chart, Kent, but did not notice the description in the third edition of the "Student's Flora," "absent in Kent," until last autumn, when upon searching the records I found it recorded only in a " Report of the Greenwich Natural History." If this ever reached the author of the "Topographical Botany," the evidence was considered insufficient, for it is not recorded in the last edition of that great work. Through the courtesy of the editor, my dis- covery was published in the October number of the "Journal of Botany." Alchemilla vulgaris is un- doubtedly rare in the south-east of England. It has been found in a few localities in Surrey, mostly about Dorking ; in Middlesex and Herts, also, in a few places. It is a common plant in the west of England, on limestone rocks and by streams. H. W. Mojtington. Ophrys apifera.— Your correspondent refers to this plant as a " fast-becoming rarity " in Gloucester- shire. If this plant is becoming rare owing to its being less prolific, it seems to be an interesting confirmation of Darwin's prophecy respecting it — on account of its habit of self-fertilisation. Professor Henslow, in his work on "Floral Structures," main- tains that self-fertilisation is not generally injurious to plants. — y. If. King. TUSSILAGO farfara (Coltsfoot), &c.— This plant during March and April was profusely ia 142 HARJDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. bloom on a waste piece of ground, very grimy from soot and other refuse, not many yards from London Bridge, in Tooley Street. This is certainly remark- able considering the surroundings, as since the time of Gerarde not many wild flowers, I will vouchsafe, have found existence possible in this neighbourhood. Gerarde mentions the enchanter's nightshade as grow- ing in a ditch side, against the Earl of Sussex's garden wall in Barnaby (Bermondsey Street), by London, " as you go from the court, which is full of trees, unto a farmhouse close unto." In this ditch likewise the water crowfoot [Ranunailus aquatilis), with its beautiful white flowers, and willow herb (epilobium) or cherry pie, as the country folks call it, and likewise the horsetail (equisetum) flourished. We cannot now boast of courts or farmhouses with trees in Tooley Street or neighbourhood, lint we can certainly boast of an avenue of young planes leading from the top of Bermondsey Street to Dockhead. These trees are doing exceedingly well, and no doubt, judging from the care bestowed on them by the parochial authorities, will make fine specimens in a few years' time. — yohn Waller, Brockley. NOTES AND QUERIES. Helix nemoralis. Reversed Form. — For some years past I have received consignments of this re- markable shell from a poor family in County Donegal. The shells are found on the sand-hills in tlie neigh- bourhood of Ballyshannon. Jeffreys notes that "they sometimes occur, but are very rare." Though the normal form is in profusion, the result of an entire year's gathering of this family of sharp-eyed young people only amounts to about two dozen of the crooked shells, as they term them ; and on the approach of spring I usually receive a small box by post containing the little horde, with the modest request that I will send what I can for them. Being overstocked, I would be glad to dispose of a few dozen for the benefit of the poor collectors, and doubtless many of your readers would be glad to avail themselves of the opportunity of thus securing specimens. I should note that, as the shells are collected in hollows among the sand-hills, they are "dead shells," and usually much bleached. — Wm, Siuanston, 4A Cliftonvillc Avemte, Belfast. Embedded Batrachians. — At the Paris Ex- hibition of 1878 I saw a toad which was supposed to have existed alive in a solid Ijlock of coal since, of course, the formation of the beds from which the block was obtained. By Mr. Gresley's interesting table we see that such tales are by no means rare. Only recently an article appeared in a London daily paper on a toad lately found in the boulder clay. Let us consider a well-known case : — Some years ago the manager of the Shielduir Pit, near Mother- well, Airdrie, N.B., "while superintending the driving of a mine through sandstone, was surprised to find from thirty to forty live frogs issue from the centre of a mass of stone that had been dislodged." The depth at which this frog-bearing block was found was 330 feet below the surface. Now, if this be a fact, we must conclude that these frogs were living in the water in which the sandstone was originally de- posited (probably during the Carboniferous Period), and furthermore, that they were able effectually to survive the pressure and chemical changes which subsequently hardened the sediment into sandstone ! Poor creatures ! how unhappy they must have been for some thousands of years ! It would be only reasonable of those who believe so far in the vitality of these batrachians to expect some day to unearth a living fossil in the shape of an Archegosaurus or other amphibian of the past ! When frogs or toads are found "embedded" at great depths below the surface, there is little doubt but that they have either crept down, or been washed down, some fissure which may have been subsequently filled up, and, under certain conditions, its contents consolidated. In cold weather frogs and toads creep into holes and fissures to pass the winter in a benumbed state ; in this condition they require little air and no food. Winter rains may then fill up the fissure, and at the same time wash the creatures lower down ; here they might exist for a considerable time before being unearthed by miners or others. — Cecil Canis-lVilson. Sheep Ticks. — Can you kindly inform me, through the medium of " our " paper, how the sheep tick multiplies in such numbers, as I find in Staveley's "British Insects," p. 372, as follows: — "An un- usual circumstance occurs in this family, the female giving birth to but one individual, and that not until it has either already attained the last stage of larva- hood, or has become a pupa." Of course, if they give birth to but one individual, the line would very soon die out from accident or natural causes. — Alfred Draper. Hertfordshire Natural History Society. — I am anxious to form collections of Hertfordshire shells, insects, etc., for the museum of the above society. Can any reader of Science-Gossip help me ? Specimens of even the commonest shells and insects will be welcomed, as at present the society does not possess either entomological or conchological collections, and an endeavour is being made to add these to the museum. We have a fine collection of county plants, the herbaria of Messrs. Webb, Coleman and Pryor, authors of the County Floras, being in possession of the society. I shall be pleased, however, to add to these, specimens of rare plants, both phajnerogams and cryptogams. It is important that a note of the exact locality and date of collection should be attached to every object. Specimens should be sent to me at "The Hollies," S. Albans. — A. E. Gibbs, Hon. Curator. Clutches of Bird's Eggs. — I was very much concerned to see in the exchange column of this month's SciENCE-GossiP no fewer than three ad- vertisements for entire clutches of birds' eggs. I hope you will not lend the pages of Scien'ce-Gossip to this nefarious business. Pray let these gentry know plainly that their business is too disreputable to find any encouragement from a journal which is devoted to and circulated amongst ' ' Lovers of Nature," and not wholesale exterminators of her treasures. — A Subscriber to SciENCE-GossiP/ww the beginning. Vandal Naturalists. — As a collector of birds' eggs in clutch, I have no objection to being called a Vandal Naturalist. Nevertheless, I think the epithet more appropriate to those who get a miscellaneous lot of specimens together, and call them a collection. Such collections serve no purpose in showing what HA R D WICKE ' S S CIENCE- G O SSI P. 143 eggs really are, neither do they assist in any way in " searching out of new facts." From careful observa- tion of birds for many years — nearly half a century — I believe a pair of birds can rear a full brood as easily as a part only, which they are obliged to do if orthodox collectors {sic) take a portion of the eggs from a full clutch. These collectors had far better procure a good set of plates representing the eggs of birds and leave the birds in possession of their jewels. Your correspondent Mr. Mosley is not very far wrong when he says, "Generally the eggs in the same nest are ver}' much alike," but doubtless he is aware that in the nests of some birds, two and sometimes three types of egg are always found. It is to this fact I have more than once called the attention of zoologists. There is another fact which appears to have been over- looked, namely, the relationship which exists between the colour and the fertility of eggs. I have waded through volumes of ornithological literature, and fail to find a single paragraph devoted to it. I should exceedingly like to know if the three light-coloured raven eggs forming part of a clutch of five — which Commander J. B. Young mentions in his most interesting letter — were fertile or infertile, for I so often find when blowing a clutch of eggs, that an abnormally light-coloured egg is infertile. By the end of the present breeding season, I hope to be able to say more upon this subject. I believe it is generally supposed that the light-coloured eggs in a clutch are the last laid, but so far as I have at present been able to ascertain it is not the case. In defence of Vandalism, I am sure no true collector will take every clutch of eggs he can lay his hand upon. — Josiph P. Nunn, Royston. Snow blinding Fish. — It is a common idea along this part of the south coast that a south snow blinds the fish, and that they may be had in large numbers in consequence. Can any of the readers of Science-Gossip inform me if this be really a fact ? — A. Vigai-. White Moles, and Apple-trees. — In answer to N. P. Chrzastow, (i) White moles are by no means unknown, and the mole varies also to orange, brown, &c. : see "Zoologist," 1886, p. 332; "Nat. World," 1 886, p. 40. It is always interesting to have records of such variations. (2) Apple-trees bear fruit and blossom at the same time in Madeira, but the fruit is of inferior quality. — T. D. A. Cockerdl. Sense of Smell. — Allow me to correct error in note under above heading. It should have been Bex- hill Harriers, not BoxXvlW. May I also ask why my communication forwarded to you three months ago did not — if published at all — appear in an earlier issue "i—W. E. Windus, BexJiill. NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To CORRESPOKDENTS AND EXCHANGERS.— As We nOW publish Science-Gossip earlier than formerly, we cannot un- dertake to insert in the following number any communications which reach us later than the 8th of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists.— We must adhere to our rule of not noticing queries which do not bear the writers' names. To Dealers and Others.— We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the ' ' exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply Disguised Advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken oi omx gratuitous insertion of " exchanges " which cannot be tolerated. Wk request that all exchanges may be signed with name (or initials) and full address at the end. Special Note. — There is a tendency on the part of some exchangers to send more than one per month. We only allow this in the case of writers of papers. HuLWiDGEON. — ^The best means of testing your knowledge on the subjects you mention would be to pass the South Kensington examinations in them. Write to the South Ken- sington Museum, enclosing u. id. in stamps for their directory, in which you will find the questions that have been put on the subjects for many years past. J. E. Black. — We have no doubt the Rev. W. Fowler, author of the work on "British Coleoptera," now appearing, would assist you in naming your specimens. Mks. C. — No eharge is made for naming objects in our columns, but it is always better students should try to name them for themselves. A. F. Robin (Adelaide). — You will see in our Scientific Directory the names and addresses of the secretaries of our chief natural history, &c., societies, all of whom are interested in the preservation of plants and wild animals. W. Mackie. — The "London Catalogue of Mosses" is out of print. Mr. J. A. Wheldon, of York, is publishing the "York Catalogue," to take its place. K. E. Styan. — All the papers in S.-G. are contributed gratuitously. E. Clifton. — The plant called the water soldier {Siratioles aloides) is very common in the rivers and broads of Norfolk. If you have any friends in Norwich, they could easily procure it for you. H. C. B. — ^The " Journal of Microscopy " may be obtained of Mr. Alfred Allen, i Cambridge Terrace, Bath, and the "Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club" of Williams and Norgate, Covent Garden, London. P. Thompson. — H. caperata may be distinguished from H. virgata by the strong rib-like stria; with which its surface is covered, as well as by its more depressed spire and larger umbilicus ; A . anatina from A . cygnea. by its shell being smaller and longer in proportion, by the hinge line being raised instead of straight, and by the abrupt instead of gradual slope of the posterior side ; and U. pictonan from U. iumidus by its oblong shape and thinner shell, by the straightness of the upper and lower margins, as well as by the beaks being less tumid and its hinge and teeth being more slender. See Rimmer's " Land and Freshwater Shells." S. G. — The coco-de-mer {Lodoicea sechellarum) is found in Praslin and Curieuse, two of the Seychelles. The male tree when full grown, which is not before it has attained the age of 100 years, reaches the height of 100 feet. At the age of thirty it commences to blossom. It takes ten years for the fruit to mature. The nuts average a weight of about forty pounds each. For a fuller account, see " Treasury of Botany." J. T. Johnston. — You may obtain the " Botanical Gazette" (American), and the "Journal of Botany," from Mr. VV. P. Collins, 157 Great Portland Street, London, W. The "Popular Science Monthly" is, we believe, no longer circulating. Z. — Get Rye's " British Beetles," price \os. 6d., coloured illustrations. J. R. B. M. wishes to know if there are any natural history societies in Cheltenham or the neighbourhood. Perhaps some correspondent will kindly let us know. J. M. D. K.— Jerdon's " Birds of British India" is the great book on the subject. The land and freshwater shells of that country have, we believe, been described in one of the British Museum Catalogues. J. P. G. — (i) To calculate the rainfall of one inch it is neces- sary to know the area. (2) Snow is usually ten to twelve times more bulky than water. (3) If the sun's rays do put out a fire it is because of the rarefaction of the air by solar heat, and consequent scarcity of oxygen. EXCHANGES. Wanted, some living specimens of anemones and zoophytes, &c., for a marine aquarium ; good exchange given. — H. Parritt, 103 Camden Street, London, N.W. For slide of Heliopelta inetii (selected), send other slide, preferably diatoms, spicules, or polariscopic. — G. H. Bryan, Thornlea, Cambridge. What offers for "Leisure Hour" (1883), "Birds' Eggs and Nests," by Atkinson, and " Birds, their Nests and Eggs," by W. H. Bath? Will exchange for natural history books or apparatus. — Hodder, 40 Wimborne Road, Alfreton Road, Nottingham. What offers for "Nature," vols. 28, 3s, 36, 37. bound in cloth, vols. 38 and 39 unbound ; Science-Gossip, 1884-7, bound in two vols., cloth, 1888 unbound ; "Annals of Botany," vol. i. parts I and 2? — G. A. G., i Lansdowne Road, Sheffield. Wanted, living examples ai Li>ftax Icmis and Limax tcnellus. British and foreign land and freshwater shells in exchange.— W. A. Gain, Tuxford, Newark. Wanted, Polydonta maculaius, Elenchus triodon, Terebra 144 HARD WICKE ' S S CIE NCR- G 0 SSIF. riidts, and Xassa arcularia, one good specimen of each. Will give a good exchange in other shells, or natural history litera- ture.— W. Jones, 27 Mayton Street, HoUoway, N. Helix Htidsoiii, ^hytostylus, capcnsis, and Knysncensis, Physa cornea and parietalis, Physopsis Africana, Litnnaa Natalensis, and other South African shells, offered for other foreign land and freshwater shells. Send lists. — Edward Collier, 74 Yerburgh Street, Moss Side, Manchester. Dthlicates. — Sph. rivicola, laC7istre and corneiim'; Pi's. p7isillum, D. polyiiiopha. Pal. contecta, V. piscinalis ; P. albiis, glaber, spirorbis, vortex, carinatns, complanatus, dila- tatus, and contortus ; P. hypnorum ; L. peregra, siagnalis, palustris, and truncatula ; Z. cellarius, glaber, and nitidns ; Helix nevioralis, arbustorunt, and sericea ; B. obscums ; Pi:pa secale, ujnbilicata, and marginata, Coch. tridens and lubrica, &c. Wanted, foreign shells, any kind. — F. C. Long, 8 Cog Lane, Burnley, Lanes. Exchange. — Wood's "Insects at Home" (newl, Wood's " Insects Abroad," " Boy's Own Paper," vols. i. ii. iii. iv. (red cloth) ; " Boy's Own Paper," vol. ii. (unbound) ; Cassell's " Canaries and Cage Birds," parts i to 40 ; Routledge's " Every Boy's Annual," 1868 to 1871, and 1874. Wanted, second-hand microscope (good maker), or scientific books and periodicals, particularly Bell's " British Quadrupeds and Reptiles." — R. M. Skinner, The Hollies, 14 Thornden, St. Leonards-on-Sea. What offers for the following? " Zoology" (illustrated), by Andrew Wilson, Ph.D. ; "On Amoeba," &:c. ; "Half Hours with the Microscope," by Dr. Lankester, M.D., 14th edition, illustrated by Tuffen West, col. plates ; Collection of marine, land, and freshwater shells, about seventy-two varieties, some rare. — J. W. B. Rodgers, 54 London Road, Sheffield. To EXCHANGE. — A few micro-slides (various) ; quantity of unmounted material : zoophytes, diatoms, stems, sections, double stained, &c., and other good preparations. Also splendid turn-table for making shells and finishing slides. Medical shocking coil, platinum contacts, three powers. Offers, photo, micro, or otherwise. — Kilgour, 21 Grieve's Terrace, Locke Road, Dundee. Offered, " Science-Gossit," 1874, bound; some numbers Newman's "Entomologist," 1874, 1875; Cassell's "Countries of the World," 40 parts, comprising 4 complete volumes, with title and contents to each, beautifully illustrated. Wanted, one or more vols. Jeffreys' " British Conchology ; " " British Beetles," by E. C. Rye ; British Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, shells, &c. — Mrs. Smith, Jessamine Cottage, Lower Shapter Street, Topsham, Devon. Exchange. — Eriophormn vaginatunt (cotton sedge) in flower (not in fruit yet), for other Glumiferje, say Lensia panicutn, Spartina setaria and Chatnagrostis, or {■ other southern grasses. — Smith, 50 Stanley Street, Cheetham, Man- chester. Offered, the minerals saponite, red and green varieties, pitchstone, spherulite, Analcime, Prehnite, Yorbaneite, Os- monde stone (a banded volcanic ash), cone in cone ironstone, and various carboniferous plants, in exchange for minerals and crystals, many common. — Robert Pettigrew, Jun., Gartlee, Airdrie, N.B. Conchology. — Lyonsia Nomegtca, Trochus granulatus, Pholadidea papyracea, Isocardia cor, Avicula hirundo, A. tarentina. Pinna rudis, Pecten nivea, Spirula Peronii, Hippo- ihyris psittacea, Terebratula cranium, Hyalce trispinosa, Viodonta fragihs, lanihina exigua, I. pallida, Btuciniim Dalei, B. Humphrey sianiim, Fusus Berniciensis, F. Nor- 'jegicus, F. Turtoni, wanted in exchangejfor the following, and other rarer British shells: Rissoa fulgida, R. seiiiistriaia, R. cingillus, R. inconspicua, R. punctura, decum trachea, Cardium nodosum, Venus miaia, V. casina, Hydrolia ulvif, f^ucula radiata, Lachesis minima, Barleeia rubra, Scrahicu- laria piperita, Emarginula' rosea, Pecten lineata, Pholns par-ja, P. Candida, P. dactylus, Denialium tarentinum, D. entails, Psammobia Ferroensis, P. tellinella, Tellina fabula. Tapes aurea. Lacuna pallidula, Thracia villosiuscula. Lists sent. — A. J. R. Sclater, M.C.S., 23 Bank Street, Teignmouth. Wanted, British birds' eggs, blown with single hole. Will give in exchange North American birds' skins and squirrels ; also British birds' skins, and British butterflies and moths. — T. Mottershaw, 11 Manchester Street, Nottingham. Histological and pathological micro-sections of first quality in exchange for anatomical sections, also sections of chick embryo sections, comparative or human of equal merit. List on application. — Thomas Rowney, 16 Savile Street, Hull. Wanted, "Science-Gossip," tor 1883 to 1887, single volumes, bound or unbound. Offered, fossils, minerals, or other exchange. — P. Thompson, 19 Guerin Street, Bow, London. Wanted, Foreign shells and naturalistic specimens, in ex- change for choicel microscopic slides, anatomical, diatoms, parasites, botanical, &c. — R. Suter, 5 Highweek Road, Tottenham. Diatom slides in exchange for other miscellaneous micro- mounts, or for small induction coil. — Rev. E. A. Hutton, Mottram, Manchester. Wanted, micro-slides (diatoms, vegetable preparations, and miscellaneous), in return for British mosses, including many rare species, all named. — J. J. C, 9 Wythenshawe Road, Sale, Manchester. Larv-e of A. caj'a for larvse of other common species. — Tunley, Powerscourt Road, Landport. FiKST-CLAss injected anatomical specimens, foreign parasites, &c., mounted or unmounted. What offers? — M., Oakbank, Haslemere, Surrey. Wanted, to correspond with another microscopical student, who will forward living marine micro specimens in return for pond-life ditto. — P. Thompson, 19 Guerin Street, Bow, London. Wanted, Lepidoptera of England, in exchange for those from the United States. Magnificent American moths and butterflies, for European species in good condition. — Chas. S. Westcott, 613 N 17th Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A. Wanted, foreign land and freshwater shells ; good exchange in English shells given. The shells must be accurately named, and their locality marked ; or, at any rate, the locality must be accurately given. Should be pleased to correspond with any conchologist abroad. — J. W. Williams, 35 Mitton, Stourport, Worcestershire. Wanted, fossils from Barton and Bracklesham beds, London clay, Woolwich and Reading beds, also from Carboniferous limestone, Wenlock limestone, in exchange for others. Send lists. Also, what offers for sixty micro slides. — Geo. E. East, jun., 10 Basinghall Street, London, E.C. Will exchange vols. i. and ii. of "Garner " (bound) for vpls. i. and ii. of "Naturalists' World" (bound) ; also copy of Taylor's " Playtime Naturalist," in exchange for entomological appa- ratus.— A. Nott, 75 Waterloo Road, S.E. Botanv. — Correspondents wanted in South or West of England for exchange of fresh plants during season. — Wm. Wallace, 28 South Mount, Aberdeen, N.B. Offered, Cuvier's "Animal World," with 200 well-coloured plates (10 by 14 in.) ; Strickland's "Ornithological Synonyms" (accipitres) ; Jardine's "Naturalists' Library" (humming birds, game birds, including sand grouse and whales). Wanted, "Zoologist," before 1888.— J. H. K., 18 Church Street, Com- mercial Street, E. Wanted, a small collection of British water plants from ponds and ditches, named, dated and localised. Exchange fossils or pathological micro slides.— J. Eyre, 4 Render Street, New Cross, S.E. Wanted, a circle of about six persons willing to circulate " Nature." The writer is willing to pay half the price of the magazine, on condition of keeping the copies after circulation ; the expense to each member would thus be one penny a week, including the halfpenny for postage. Please address A. G. Tansley, 167 Adelaide Road, London, N.W. BOOKS, ETC.. RECEIVED. "Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society." — "Th-e Microscope." — "American Microscopic Journal." — "A Further Contribution to the Study of the Mango Weevil " (the Report of the Sub-committee of the Microscopical Society of Calcutta). — " Home Rule and Federation," by a Doctor of Medicine. — "Contributions towards a Flora of Caithness," by J. F. Grant and A. Bennett. — "Anoplophyra jEolosomatis, a New Ciliafie Infusorian Parasitic in the Alimentary Canal of iEolosoma Chlo- rostriatum,"by H. H.Anderson. — "Canadian Entomologist." — " Haunts of Nature," by H. W. S. Worsley-Benison (Londonc Elliot Stock).— "The York Catalogue of British Mosses," by J. A. Wheldon.— " Fifth Annual Report of the Botanical Ex- change Club." — " Diptera of Australia," parts iv. and v., by F. A. A. Skuse.— "The Rhsetics of Leicestershire," by H. E. Quilter, with " Notes on Fossil Fish Remains," by A. Smith Woodward. — "Our Fancy Pigeons," by George Ure (London : Elliot Stock). — " Notes on Pet Monkeys," by Arthur Patterson (London: Upcott Gill). — "Celestial Motions: a Handy Book of Astronomy," by W. T. Lynn (London: Ed. Stanford). — " Science Examination Papers," compiled by R. E. Steal (London: Geo. Bell & Sons).— " The Nautilus."— "Transac- tions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club."— "The Garden." — " The Athenseum." — "The Gar- dener's Chronicle." — "The Asclepiad." — "Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society." — "Research." — "Knowledge." "The Century Magazine." — "The Amateur Photographer." — "The Garner." — "The Naturalist." — Cassell's "Technical Educator." — " The Botanical Gazette." — " Belgravia." — " The Gentleman's Magazine." — "American Monthly Microscopical Journal."—" Wesley Naturalist."—" Midland Naturalist." — "Feuilles du Jeune Naturalistes." — "The American Natu- ralist," &c. &c. Communications received up to the 13TH ult. from : M. B. M.— J. W. W.— H. F.— W. R.— H. P.— J. L.— G. H. D. — G. A. G.— R. P. G.— J. B. Y.— G. G.— W. J. S.— A. T. D. -A. L. C— W. J.— A. J. H. C— O. V. D.-W. R.— W. A. G. — E. P.— F. C L.— W. S.-H. C B.— E. C— J. P. N.— R. M. S.— J. W. B. R.— P. K.— H. F.-J. B.-L. J. S.-S. S. -A. J. R. S.— R. P.-T. M.— R. S.— W. H. T.— W. M.— J. J. C.— W. F. K.— L. S. S.— E. C.-A. E. G.— J. W. W.— D. B.— P. T.-T. R.— E. A. H.— A. G. T.— C. S. W.— J. E.— A. G. T.— C. N. C— J. H. K.— T. D. A. C— W. W.— A. N- — H. M.— G. E. E.— J. W. B.— J. W. W.— A. M.— W. J. S.— H. G.— F. W. P.— W. B.— E. E. G., &c. &c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. M5 SOME WINTER BIRDS OF NEW JERSEY. By Dr. CHARLES C. ABBOTT. HAVE been reading ahout British birds of late ; my book- seller having sent me several dainty volumes, new and old, relating their many merits. One after the other, I have read each from title-page to index, and laid it down with a pang of jealousy, mut- tering something like this: "Their birds are prefer- able to ours." Then, before tak- ing up some new author, I have gone for a ramble over fields and meadows, up hill and down dale, to see if we too cannot truthfully boast of birds of merit ; and I have invariably come home, convinced that we can. But each new book that I took up caused the late walk to be forgotten, and I had all the unpleasant doubt and jealousy to undergo again. Last night's meditations, however, solved the problem ; we have the birds, but not the authors. No one yet has done them justice as a whole ; although Burroughs, Torrey, Thoreau, Gones, and Maurice Thompson have done well, gloriously well, by many of them. And now, a word or two of my recent walks — ■ rambles in dull December's dismal days. Here in Central New Jersey, where our winters are milder than in New England and in even the northern section of our own State, we have birds in plenty, and, while few are of brilliant plumage, none are absolutely ugly and some are beautiful. Let us consider them briefly, bearing in mind that those mentioned are the familiar birds of a winter day. No. 295. — July 18S9. Not because more abundant than certain sparrows, nor larger than most winter birds, for it is neither, but for the reason that no bright winter morning seems complete without him, I will mention first our beautiful sparrow-hawk. Whether hovering in the open, in search of a mouse, or dashing through underbrush in pursuit of a finch, this falcon is the embodiment of grace, and we are disposed to overlook his murderous errands, so attractively does he conduct himself. As a destroyer of song birds, if such only, I should have nothing but curses to fling at him ; but this is an unfair view to take. From long observa- tion, I am convinced that he prefers fun to feathers, and birds are safe whenever mice are accessible. Of course the small birds do not look upon him in this light, and flee from his presence. So the pretty song sparrows did this morning, as I crossed an upland field, for one of these hawks came sailing by, and the songsters cut short their warbling, to dive into a clump of weeds. I crouched in an angle of the crooked fence to see what might happen, and had the hawk object within ten paces of me. He moved his head to and fro continually, looking for prey, and while so doing, the sparrows slipped to the ground and ran like mice for several yards ; then up and darted into the bushes twenty rods away. In an instant the hawk was after them, but not quickly enough. Nearing the dense undergrowth, he saw it was too late and so sailed up into the air, wheeled and hovered over the field, looking, I am sure, for mice. Why sure ? Because ere long he caught one, and sent the sparrows in haste from the thicket, as he flew to a tall tree therein, to enjoy a well-earned meal. As I neared a clump of cedars by the public road, a host of tree sparrows fluttered about me. They were seed-hunting in the pasture as I approached, and were none too ready to leave it. These lively birds come to us from Canada in October and stay until April. I suppose those living near the haunts of the nightingale would not call tree-sparrows song birds, but ihe united twittering of a hundred or more cheers the gloomy winter day and robs the 146 HA RD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSSIP. brown fields of their dreary outlook. What they lack individually is more than made up by their numbers, for all they do, and wherever they go, is concerted action. Another Canadian bird, and a lovely one, is the white-throated sparrow, which in New England is known as the " Peabody bird." A favourite summer home of this finch is the White Mountain region of New Hampshire ; and IngersoU says, or ought to have done so, much about them in his delightful "Down East Latchstrings," a jolly book that a Yankee railroad gives away for the asking. White-throated sparrows sing magnificently all winter long. In jolly companies they crowd the sheltered thickets, and even when the mercury touches zero, or a foot of snow canopies upland and meadow alike, they are full of song ; a few simple notes, it is true, but every one touchingly sweet. Here, too, is a case where concerted action makes the charm. A single white-throat would prove a trifle monotonous. Akin to the above, is our splendid foxy sparrow, a grand songster, but one that is comparatively mute until March, when he haunts the hedgerows, and sunny nooks where the undergrowths are dense, and then sings with remarkable sweetness of expression. Bradford Torrey writes : " The finest bird concert I ever attended was given on Monument Hill (Boston, Mass.), by a great chorus of fox-coloured sparrows. ... It was a royal concert ; " and elsewhere he speaks of this bird as among the "immortals," and he is right. Another finch, familiar in Europe as a cage bird, is our lively cardinal grosbeak. Locally, it is known as the "winter red bird," because here the whole year, and more of a songster in December than in June. His notes are very clear, penetrating and somewhat varied, so we do not tire of them. They are summer birds also, and in Southern Ohio last summer they were remarkably abundant and vocal. Both sexes sing, too, which is an advantage over most of our birds. {To he continued.) VARIATION IN THE MOLLUSCA, AND ITS PROBABLE CAUSE. By Joseph W. Williams. Part I. — Variation : to what extent must Varieties be named? SOMETIMES I am accused as somewhat of a downright conchological " variety-monger " by those who do not personally know my views in this relation. I am ignorant of what reasons they have for assigning such a title to me, other than that I have named one or two well-marked variations, liave published several articles on slug-variation, and have in my "Shell-Collector's Handbook" given a fairly full account of named varieties of British shells, some of which, perhaps, are practically worthless in a scientific sense, and not therefore worthy of a separate name. But these worthless — scientifically worthless — names have been added by workers in faunas, and consequently they must remain, and, more than that, they must at present be acknowledged. I make one or two references as to what kind of variety-names experience has taught me to be practically worthless. Such are, for example, the brown variety of A. ater, called (and appropriated) by Roebuck v. bninnea, since Lehmann in 1S62 described a coffee or rust-coloured variation as A. bninneus : the v. nigra and v. aterrima of Dumont and Mortillet in the same species, which are respectively described by them as "animal black or lilackish," and "animal entirely black," and which are nothing more or less than identical colour-forms, and, when all is said and done, nothing but types ; the V. pallescens of Roebuck, described as "light yellow," when Moquin-Tandon previously had de- scribed a colour-form as " dirty-white, a little reddish or yellowish," under the same name ; the v. pnmila of Moquin-Tandon in Limncea stagtialis, described as "shell much smaller, amber-coloured," when Linne in 1758 described a variety of this species as Helix fragilis — now well known as L. sfng/talis, \a.r. fragilis — which to all intents and purposes is identical with it. The so-called varieties minor and major, maxima, &c., which may be any size below or above a certain standard, and are nothing else than so many Tom Thumbs and Irish giants of their kind, not counting, indeed, that the whole thing brings in confusion, since in many cases what we proudly enough term var. major in this country are only ordinary sizes of the same species a country or so away from us on the Con- tinent. Rather would it not be better if any excep- tionally small or large form of a species be found, to give its length and itsbreadth (between two most widely separated points on the body-whorl) in millimetre measure than to so absurdly christen it either var. minor or var. major, as the case may be. I consider it absurd, as Locard has done in the case of Bithynia tentaculata, to name coloiir-forms very closely re- sembling one another, and withal not differing much, if at all, from the recognised type-colour. I refer to what he has termed var. fiilva and var. cornea of this species. To revert slightly, the absurdity of the special naming of small and large forms is more especially seen, perhaps, when it is even carried to such an extent as to have two separately named Tom Thumbs, and two separately named Irish giants of any given species. Thus, taking Sitccinea Ffeifferi, there is a var. parvida, so named by Pascal, and a var. minor, so named by Rossmiissler ; or, taking Claiisilia hiplicata, there is a var. grandis, so named by Rossmiissler, and a var. maxima, so named by A. Schmidt, which differ from one another just by the pigmy difference of a millimetre. Then, would I ask, does it make concholog>- more scientific — does it not rather make it look more HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 147 "big," with no practical or theoretical result to science — to call a colour-form var. albida, var. rubra, &c., when the whole matter would be as well ex- pressed in the mother-tongue by saying "a white form," or "a red form of such and such a species," as the case may be ? Does not all this rather tend to subvert the ends of science, since it is leading along the broad way to confusion ? For example, there is a var. albida of Helix virgata described as " unicolor, spira pauUo elatiore, d. 17, a. 11-12 mill.," and there is also a var. albicans described as "a shell entirely white or whitish, without markings," in the same species. Whence the difference ? What, then, do I propose? An ink-pot is an ink-pot, whether it contains red, black, or blue ink. It remains an ink-pot, and nothing more. But there are various shapes of ink-pots ; there are varieties of ink-pots. I am not a variety simply because I am taller or smaller than my friend Albert Paling, or John Cook. Therefore, I would cut out for ever all the named so-called varieties, which simply denote a unicolorous colour-change from that in the recog- nised type, and designate its characteristic colour in English terms of speech. I would cut out for ever and ever all the so-called varieties — major, grandis, minor, parvnla, brevis and parva, and designate their largeness or smallness in terms of measurement only — preferably in milhmetres. But I would reserve all the variety-names which denote a well-marked struc- tural change in the shell from the recognised type, as the vars. Burneiii, stagnaliformis, ovata, and lineata of Limnaa peregi-a, and so forth. But I would not recognise varieties marking only slight changes in shape from the type, or from previously described varieties, as the var. acuminata of L. peregra, which differs from var. ovata simply and only in having a smaller mouth and a more produced spire. Some will doubtless think my notions somewhat too restrictive in character, but, if carried out, they will stay an almost inevitable confusion. The third part of my paper — The Probable Cause of Variation — will be chiefly worked out ' on the physiological basis of heredity, which I reserve till later, since I send this forward for the purposes of discussion, and for the gathering together of the present-day views of conchological workers on this question, several of whom will doubtless write on the subject to these pages. The second part will discuss this question in more detail. ( To be continued. ) Mitton, Stourport, Worcestershire. Hairs on Pup^. — All the members of the family Liparidre have hairy chrysalides, viz. : — Liparis ckrysorrhcea, atirijlua, salicis, dispar, and monacha ; Orgyia pudibiutda, fascelina, cccnosa, gonostigma, and aiitiqua ; Dcmas coryli. One of the commonest of these is salicis, which has a very hairy chrysalis.— F. W. Paple, Bolton. THE FLORA OF THE PAST. No. IV. By Mrs. Bodington. \Coniinued from p. 123.] THE immense development of apparently new orders and species of mammals does not occur till the Eocene Tertiary. In Europe, as is well known, there is a great gap between the Upper Cretaceous and the Tertiary series ; but in America they pass so gradually into one another in the Laramie forma- tion, that it is still a matter of dispute whether the Laramie shall be called Upper Cretaceous or keep its old name of Lignite Tertiary. In the Canadian North- West there is no break between the Fox Hills group, undoubtedly Upper Cretaceous, and the Laramie ; the beds of Miocene conglomerate lie unconformably on the latter, the Eocene being absent in this region. Professor Nicholson says, " The Lower and Upper Cretaceous rocks are sharply separated from one another, from a botanical point of view. The Mesozoic period is characterized by the prevalence of the Cryptogamic group of the ferns, and the Gymnospermic groups of the Conifers and Cycads. Up to the close of the Lower Cre- taceous, ;no angiospermous exogens are certainly known to have existed, and monocotyledonous plants or endogens are very poorly represented. With the Upper Cretaceous, however, a new era of plant life, of which our present is but the culmination, commenced, with a great and apparently sudden development of new forms. We have now an astonishingly large number of true angiospermous exogens, many of them belonging to existing types, and along with these various monocotyledonous plants, including the first examples of the great and important group of palms." It is strange to think of this modern type of vegetation appearing whilst the "ocean was still tenanted by Ammonites and Belemnites, and when land and sea were still peopled by the extraordinary extinct reptiles of the Mesozoic period." There are indications, however, from later researches, that the development was by no means so sudden as it at first appears. Poplars, laurels, sassafras, mallows and willows, sedges and grasses have been found in Lower Cretaceous rocks, and we may safely infer that it is only the present im- perfection of our geological researches which has pre- vented us from finding a much more extensive flora. But in the Dakota group of North America, Cenomanian of Europe, a magnificent flora confronts us, richer and more varied than any collection of plants in one region of the earth could be now, owing to the peculiar conditions of climate, which allowed beeches, oaks, chestnuts, palms, tulip-trees, cycads, tree ferns, and magnolias to flourish together. To these may be added fig-trees, eucalypti, plum- trees, cinnamon trees, various species of leguminous H 2 148 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. plants, and, strange to say, splendid specimens of Compositae, the most highly specialized of flowers. The animal remains of the very highest Cretaceous formation, the Laramie, are still Mesozoic, con- taining bones of deinosaurian reptiles, an order on the point of disappearing for ever. These are found just below a bed of curious fossil fruits to which the name of Esculus has been given. As in the Cretaceous period there are already to be found "forty-eight genera belonging to at least twenty-five families, running through the whole range of the dicotyledonous exogens." We are, botani- cally speaking, in modern times. Throughout the Eocene and Miocene period the same glorious vegetation flourished from the Equator almost to the Pole, One cannot help feeling that the most delightful conditions upon earth had passed away before man, or at least man as we know him, appeared upon the scene. The exquisite beauties of the Laramie, the Eocene and Miocene landscapes were lavished upon animals incapable of appreciating them, except from a gastronomic point of view. During the Eocene and Miocene period all the known orders of mammals made their appearance, with an abundance of species, and a wealth of forms, of which we can have but an imperfect idea. Sir J. W. Dawson says, "It is certain that throughout the later Miocene and earlier Pliocene the area of land in the northern hemisphere was increasing, and the large and varied continents were tenanted by the noblest vegetation, and the grandest forms of mam- malian life that the earth has ever witnessed. As the Pliocene drew to a close, a gradual diminution of warmth came on, accompanied by a submergence of the land, and changes in the warm ocean-currents. Thus gradually the summers became cooler and the winters longer and more severe, the hill-tops became covered with permanent snows, glaciers ploughed their way downward into the plains, and masses of floating ice cooled the seas. The more delicate forms of vegetation were chilled to death, or obliged to move farther south, and in many extensive regions, hemmed in by the advance of the sea on the one hand and land-ice on the other, they must have altogether perished." Strange to say, the plants, which one would think had less power than animals to fly before the advanc- ing cold, suffered less than the mammals, which have never recovered the shock of the glacial period, and survive as a sadly diminished remnant. Comparing the past climatic conditions of North America, Europe and Asia, with the present state of these regions, I think we are justified in considering that we still live in the glacial period, and that future geologists would so rank the insignificant deposits dignified as Pleistocene. Whilst the upper part of the Northern Hemisphere showed the highest mountain peaks hardly emerging from their glacial ice-sheet, the surviving animals and jilants fled towards the south ; in America to the regions about the Gulf of Mexico, and in Europe and Asia to Africa and the Indo-Chinese peninsulas. Thence the survivors gradually returned as far north as climatic conditions would ]3ermit. But the world is hardly likely ever again to see tree-ferns, palms, magnolias, and fig-trees in Canada and Siberia, still less in Greenland and Spitzbergen, where the glacial period still reigns in full intensity. The struggle with the adverse conditions of climate has probably been highly beneficial to the evolution of the higher qualities of man. W'e have reason to think that he existed as a reasoning being even in the enervating conditions of Miocene times, but probably his reasoning faculties were more rapidly developed during the exigencies of life in the glacial period, than during long ages before. The great ape Dryopithecus disappeared for ever before the advancing cold, but man boldly struggled on, catching seals and reindeer, and hunting the whale in the estuary of the Firth of Forth. He thrives on the cereals which he himself has brought to their present perfection ; he has cultivated to the utmost the fruits of temperate climates, and European man has no reason to envy his Miocene progenitor amongst his figs and palms. STUDIES IN ECONOMIC BOTANY. PARAGUAY Tea. or Mate.— This name is applied to the prepared leaves of one of the hollies— //fx Paragiiayensis, St. Hil. A small shrubby tree with alternate, simple, ovate-lanceolate, smooth, irregularly-serrated leaves. The plant is cultivated Fig. 103. — Flower of Coca {Erythroxylon coca). in the provinces of Brazil and Paraguay to a very large extent for the sake of its leaves, which are used for making tea, as the leaves of the Chinese plant [T/it'a viridis and vars.) are used in this and other countries. The means adopted for the preparation of the leaves diff"er very widely from those employed for the preparation of Indian and Chinese tea. Collectors are sent out to cut the branches off the trees, and these t. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 149 are brought in and laid upon hurdles and roasted over a lire ; they are then placed upon a hard floor, and well beaten with sticks until the leaves are detached. The dried leaves thus separated are ground in rude mills into a coarse powder, after which they are ready for use. The material thus prepared is packed in leathern bags and skins (very frequently the skin of the great ant-eater) and sent to market, and one may easily judge of the importance of this article in South American trade, when it is stated that not less than 5,000,000 lbs. are annually exported from Paraguay alone. There are three sorts known in the South very refreshing and restorative to the system after enduring fatigue. It contains the active principle "theine," as Chinese tea doe^. It acts in some degree as an aperient and diuretic, and, if taken in excess, causes diseases similar to those produced liy strong liquors. Cinnamon. — This favourite spice and medicine is the produce of more than one species of Cinnamomum, although the best kind is that furnished by C. Zey lanicum, Nees : a tree about forty feet in height, native of Ceylon, but now cultivated in many other Fig. 104. — Cinnamon (C Zfylanicuin). American niarkets — the Caa-cuys, consisting of half- expanded leaf buds ; the Caa-miri, the leaf torn from its mid-rib and veins without roasting j and the Caa-guaya, or YrMa de Palos of the Spaniards, the whole leaf with the petiole and small branches roasted. The mate is prepared for drinking by putting a small quantity in a teapot with a little sugar, and adding boiling water. When sufficiently cool, the tea is drunk from the spout, or imbibed by means of a small tube covered with a wire gauze or perforated at one end, known as a "bombilla." It has an agreeable, slightly aromatic flavour, and is parts, especially in India, where it is naturalised. The branches are smooth and shining, leaves variable, ovate, or ovate-oblong, three-nerved, smooth, shining. Flowers in terminal or axillary panicles. The tree succeeds best in Ceylon, where, according to Royle, the soil is pure quartzose sand, climate damp, tempe- rature high and equable. It is stated that the plant is rather difficult to cultivate in this country, but thrives best in a damp, high, and equable temperature in hot-hou-es. The uses of cinnamon as a spice are well known. The bark is collected from May until October; in collecting it the branches are cut off, varying in 15° HARD WICKE S S CIE NCR- GO SSI P. thickness from \ inch to 3 inches in diameter ; longi- tudinal incisions are made, and the bark peeled off in strips. After twenty-four hours the epidermis and green colouring matter upon the inside are scraped off, when the strips quickly contKict in the form of quills ; the smaller ones are placed inside the larger, and in that way they are imported. They are dried by two processes — first, in the shade ; and secondly, in the sun. Cinnamon is largely imported from Ceylon ; in fact, the best samples are imported from that country, although the quality varies according to the season possesses aromatic, stomachic, and slightly astringent properties. It is used in medicine in a powdered state, or the oil is used, which is a very powerful stimulant. The oil is also largely used in con- fectioner}', cookery, &c. ; it is also known in practice, and used as a tincture as an adjunct to other medicines. Coca. — This is the name applied to the dried leaves oi Erythroxylon coca. Lam., native of Bolivia and New Grenada, also largely cultivated in those parts, as well as in Peru, to a height of from 2,000 to Fig. 105. — Cota {Eyythivxylon coca). f y and the time of collecting. It occurs in long, cylindrical bundles about forty inches long, is about one-fiftli of a line in thickness, of a yellowish-brown colour, and very friable. An oil, known as "oil of cinnamon," is obtained from the bark and imported from Ceylon. The powdered bark is macerated in a solution of salt and then distilled. Spirit of cinna- mon is obtained by dissolving the oil in spirit. The chemical nature of cinnamon is as complex as many other like compounds. There is a peculiar acid known as cinnamic acid, a volatile oil, tannin, resin, mucilage, colouring matter, and woody fibre. It 9,000 feet. It is a shrubby plant, growing from 6 to 8 feet in height, having the appearance of the tea plant. Leaves I J to 2 inches long, oval, mem- branous, flat, acute, entire, dark green above, paler beneath, three-nerved in the middle. Flowers nume- rous, produced in the axils of the leaves often from the branches where the leaves have fallen away ; calyx 5-cleft, petals five, appendiculate stamens ten, united at the base. The matured leaves are collected, scorched in an earthenware pan, and dried. In that state they are ready for consumption. The annual consumption is HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 151 enormous ; it forms an article of internal trade with the various tribes. It is estimated that its annual consumption is not less than 30,000,000 pounds. The leaves are used for making an infusion as tea, or chewed with a little unslaked lime. After the morning meal both men and women take a mouthful Fig. 106. — Paraguay Tea {Ilex Paraguayensis). of the leaves with a little lime, adding constantly through the day fresh leaves, and without taking any more food they are enabled to do a hard day's work ; it lessens the desire for food, and excites the nervous system. It produces about the same effect as opium, and those habitually chewing it find it difficult to abandon it. J. T. K. BOTANICAL NOTES FROM THE SWISS HIGHLANDS. OVER THE GEMMI TO ZERMATT. By Dr. De Ckespigny. I ARRIVED with a young friend very early in July at Thun, where I had arranged to meet a brother of the Vasculum, and proceed in his company over the Gemmi pass into the Valais country. I had anticipated the day and the hour of our meeting, so went to Merlingen on the lake for the interval ; within easy reach of Interlacken by a newly-con- structed carriage-road along the north shore, with many cuttings and tunnels on the mountain side, re- minding one of the Axenstrasse by the lake of Lucerne. We visited the cave of St. Beatus, to which there is easy access from the road. On the rocks in this direction grow Lascrpitmm Siler and Peiicedanum Cervaria, — the former alsolabout the cave itself, with Hicrac'utni amplexicaule, — Diantkus sylvestris, and Saponaria Ocymoides. In the woods, Gcraniuia sauguiiicicin and sylvaticum. Digitalis hitea and ambigua, or grandijlora, — the former the better name of the two, for, if anything, it is a size smaller than purpurea, — Epipactis ovalis and Cephalanthera rubra. By the roadside the commoner plants were Tcucrium montanuin and ChamcEdrys^ Stachys recta, and Silene nutans. Behind the hotel at Merlingen there is a ravine leading to an Alpine valley called the Justiz Thai, well worth an excursion from Thun, if not from Interlachen. A steep and stony footpath by the side of a torrent leads up the ravine to an altitude of about 1500 feet above the lake, when the ascent becomes more gradual and the valley opens out. It is enclosed in by the perpendicular crags of the Sigris- wylgrat and of the Beatenberg on either hand. Narrowed-leaved willows, iiicana and/«;/«ri.'a mostly, with Epilobium rosmarinifolium and Myricaria Ger- manica, fringe the sides of the torrent ; while several high Alpine plants— 7/4/rtJ// rotundifolium, Plutchinsia alpina, Linaria alpina, &c., from seeds washed down by floods from the higher ranges — grow among the stony debris adjoining. The first alpine pasture reached afforded an abundance of that beautiful umbel Astran- tia major. This was growing in company of Salvia pratensis, Colchicum autiimnale (alpine form), &c. ; higher up towards the base of the cliff, Gentiana lutca and Lilium Martagon. Further on, under the pines, Moftcses unijlora, Stellaria nemorum, Galium rotundi- folium ; here and there Cirsium spinosissimum, with Carduus defloratus and personaia, Rosa alpina, blue and yellow Aconite. The rocks precipitated from the heights above were covered with mosses ; many uncommon and interesting species among them. A projected visit to the Schaflock cavern and an ascent of the Gemmenalphorn were thwarted by the occur- rence of a thunderstorm and setting in of heavy rain. We were compelled to beat a precipitate retreat and abandon the design. Among the j^lants collected there is nothing calling for remark except that the Rosa alpina had peduncles and young fruit covered with glandular setae (var. pyreuaica) ; and some specimens of Senecio erucifolius, growing with others of ordinary characters, were almost white with hoary pubescence. The following afternoon found us in company with our botanical friend at Spiez, on the opposite shore of the lake. Owing to the forbidding aspect of the weather, all question of attempting the Niesen was laid aside. We went on therefore to Kandersteg direct, whence we made the ascent of the Gemmi on the following morning, wrapped up in a Scotch mist — if there is any difference between that and a Swiss one — the whole way, and seeing nothing of the glorious views it affords ; neither was anything gathered worth 152 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. recording to compensate for the loss : as my botanical brother very justly remarked, the first part of an Alpine ascent, that through the forest, is what may be called the intervening unproductive region. Tha- lidrtim aquilegifoUiin:, Bcllidiastriim Machelii, Viola biflora — why biflora, it is hard to say ; as a rule, the slender stems are mostly single flowered — these with Saxifraga rotmidifolia and cii7icifoUa were plentiful under the wet, shady, rocky banks. A peculiarity by the by, and one by which the plant may be readily recognised, is the rich violet-brown colour of the undersides of the leaf rosettes in 6". cintcifolia, but the rosettes are double in the plant, and this colouring is peculiar to the lower or older one. As the termina- tion of the steep portion of the ascent is neared, the appearance of Akhemilla alpiiia, Adenostyles g/abm, Bartsia alpina, BiscutcUa hcvigata, Dryas octopctala, Astrantia ininor, Keinera saxatilis, Saxifraga stellaris and Aizoo)!, Trolliiis Eiiropcnis, Prinnila viscosa and farinosa. Rhododendrons, &c., indicates an ap- proaching change for the better. The only un- common plants met with was Geranium lividiim or phiziim, of which a patch was found in one place, and Carex JMicheliana — a form oi glaiica. The first really good "find," a single specimen only, was Aqiiilegia alpina, then Carcx temcis, AntJiericur?i liliastrum, a beautiful lily with racemes of large, pure white flowers ; Phyteuma belonicifoUum, spikes handsome, large, dark purple ; Veratriim album, Phleicm Michelii — this is a stouter grass than alpiimm, and grows in wet muddy places, whereas the other affects dry stony pastures ; the glumes, too, are lanceolate, not truncated. Also Veronica Teucriiim, flowers intense blue, v.hich do not fade on drying ; Pcdicularis verticillata, a purple- flowered species, with whorled leaves, and stems furnished with lines of glandular pubescence ; Pingui- acla alpina, Aihamanta cretensis, Gentiaiia bavarica andciliala (latter out of flower), Anemone narcissijlora, and Hedysarum obscuruin. The path for some distance onwards leads along a slope which on the left falls into a deep ravine, with a glorious view of the Blumlis Alp in the vista beyond ; of this nothing was seen, but on emerging upon the open plateau, which has to be traversed for about two leagues in order to reach the descent to Leukerbad, the mist and clouds began to lift and hold out promises, which were not unful- filled, of brighter weather to-morrow. The greater part of this open space as far as the Schwarrenbach inn — half-way — is pasture more or less covered with debris, the remains of avalanches which have fallen from the Rinderhorn in former years ; beyond the inn the path winds entirely among rocks and stones, and by the stony shores of a small lake called the Daubensee, enclosed on all sides by mountains bare of vegetation — a picture of barren desolation ; the highest point of this jilateau, a mile or so from the inn, is 7,500 feet above the level of the sea. A few stunted mountain pines grow near the inn, otherwise there is no vegetation other than the small alpine plants of the kind usually seen on calcareous soil at this elevation. The following were gathered : — On the Kandersteg side, Crcpis aicrea, Chrysan- the}7mm atraUtm and alpimun, Cerastiiim latifolitim , Erigeron alpimis, Erinus alpinus, Gaya simplex, Gentiana verna and acaulis ; Gnaphaliian dioiaim, Globiilaria cordifolia, Hieraciiim villosum, Helian- themnm wlandieum var. alpestre, Leontodon pyrenai- ciim, Myosotis alpestris, O^ytropis campestris, Potentilla attrea, Plantago alpina and montana, Phaca astraga- lina, Priintila farinacea, Kanuncnlus montanjis, Silene acaulis, Sibbaldia prociimbens, Senecio doroniaim, Salix reliisa and var. scrpyllifolia, a slightly hairy form of arbuscula, my7'siiiites, reticulata, Trifolium alpinum, and Viola calcarata. Nothing calling for remark except that much of the alpine Plantago was the pubescent form with globose heads. Cerastium latifolijim is a plant rarely met with except at a great elevation ; it differs from alpinum chiefly in being furnished with a viscid instead of a simple pubescence, and in having no rosettes of sterile leaves, but the leaves ol alpinuni are quite as broad : of this no specimens were gathered, but an alpine form of arvense was plentiful among the stones. On the Leuk side where the soil is stony, and snow lying unmelted in patches : Attdrosace bryoides and C/iaina:- jasme, Avena distichophylla, Carex nigra and firma, Cherleria sedoides, Draba aizoides, Elyna spicata, Fes- tuca varia, vwlacea, and nigrescens, Hutchinsia alpi}ia, Lloydia serotina. Near the Wildstrubel inn, where there is some pasture : Phleum alpinum, Panu7iculus alpestris, Thlaspi 7'otu7ulifoliu/7i, Solda7iella alpi/ia, Sedum atratum, Saxifraga oppositifolia, t/ioschata, and exarata, Sesleria cicrulea, etc. Time does not permit of search among the debris at the foot of the Wildstrubel glacier, nor of ascending the Schalmette, or Pa/umctilus par7tassif>lius, C/'epis pygmcra, and Kobresia cai'icina might have been added to the list. With regard to Ely/ui spicata, however, the oppor- tunity of examining this plant fresh gathered, and neither too immature nor too far gone, was not missed, and I noted as follows : there is an obtuse mem- branous glume common to a barren and a fertile floret, the latter sessile, and furnished with two small membranous scales, half the length of the achene. Kobresia, which differs in the spike being a compound instead of a simple one, is described as having spike- lets similarly constructed, but with more than two florets in each of them. If there is no other difference, they might be combined and treated as sjDecies of a common genus. However, the stigmas are pubescent in spicata, papillose in caricina. Gremli does not apparently consider Festuca 7iigresce/is (or itigricans, Schl.) as different from violacea, and structurally perhaps there is nothing of greater importance than the shorter awn of the lower glumella in violacea, and the slight difference in their respective ligules, but in habit they are obviously distinct : 7iig)-escens is stouter, varia has a rhizome emitting fascicles of HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 15. leaves ; violacca and nigricans have roots which are ■simply fibrous, shorter leaves, and but for the awn and Jhe violet tinge of the panicle and of the leaf sheaths Jiiight pass for forms of ovina. Bouvier lays stress ■upon the branches of the panicle being geminate. I may remark also that Avena distichophylla in the ■early stage of its flowering might easily be mistaken Jor siibspicata, if the peculiarity of its leaves be un- observed. The descent to the baths is by a steep winding mule- path cut in the face of the precipice. From a ledge, almost inaccessible, we obtained Aronicion scorpioides, and, on debris at the foot of the descent, Galium helveticiim. In a meadow farther on. Geranium lividum was met with again. The vegetation about the baths of Leuk has still much of an Alpine character about it, for the height of the place is 4,600 feet above the level of the sea ; and the first indication of being in a country possessing a somewhat different flora to that of Northamptonshire are detailed, and lists of their fossils given. Mr. Thompson has laid all students of the Lias formation under a debt of gratitude. Cosmic Evolution, by E. A. Redsdale (London : H. K. Lewis). To students of the literature of evolution, this little work will not be without interest. Although there is much in it that we have read of before, there is also much that is new, particularly the chemical aspect of cosmic evolution. Celestial Motions, by W. T. Lynn (London r Edward Stanford). The fact that this handy little book has reached the sixth edition is a sufficient proof of its value. The present edition has been revised and rearranged. Young students of astronomy could not do better than procure it. Its arrangement is- clear and terse, and one wonders how so much trust- worthy matter has been got into so small a space. It is in short a miniature handbook of astronomy of the very best kind. Lectures on Massage and Electricity, by T. S. Dowse (Bristol : John Wright cS: Co.). This work has been variously received, yet there can be little doubt but that it contains a vast number of important and practical reflections on the subject of massage and electricity. It consists of fifteen lectures with illus- trations, showing how massage should be applied to various kinds of muscular and nervous affections,, particularly gout, rheumatism, spinal compIaints,^ lumbago, neuralgia, hysteria, writer's cramp, sleep- lessness, low spirits, dipsomania, wasting diseases, and the changing of life. The rapidity with which massage treatment has come up in the last few years endows a volume like this with extra im- portance. Elementary Bandaging attd Surgical Dressing, by Walter Pye (Bristol : John Wright). We are pleased to see the third edition of this useful little handbook, and would advise every member of the numerous ambulance classes throughout Great Britain to procure a copy. Letters from the Lakes ; this is a translation from the German of Kempferhausen, written in 1818. The Study of Lichens, by J. A. Martindale. Both these little brochures are published by Mr. Geo. Middleton, of Ambleside. The latter has special reference to the Lake districts. Both will be very acceptable to the numerous visitors who frequent this lovely country every summer. i6o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. ASTRONOMY. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. THE Reverend S. J. King, director of Stonyhurst Observatory, recently delivered a very in- teresting lecture at the Royal Institution, on the Solar Surface during the last ten years. He had taken a great number of drawings of sun-spots, and, allowing for the effects of foreshortening, in this respect his drawings are more accurate than photographs. Although he had to contend with the bad climate of Lancashire, he succeeded in making on an average 258 drawings a year. The period of minimum sun- spots will be reached shortly, as the decrease has been going on now for about three years. The area of the spots sometimes changed as much as one hundred million square miles in a day. The magnetic records of terrestrial magnetism follow the rate of such change with great regularity. The maximum of sun-spots and magnetic swing occurred in the year 1882. In concluding, the lecturer suggested that sun-spots might be caused by meteoric streams. The annual visitation of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, took place on June 1st. A pair of glass discs twenty-eight inches in diameter have been com- pleted by Chounce for the new refractor, and a special telescope, which will be a photographic refractor of thirteen inches' aperture, will be made to enable Greenwich to take part in the great photographic chart of the heavens. At the last meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, Rev. J. Roberts read a paper on a photograph of the Nebula 51 Messier taken with an exposure of four hours. Mr. Roberts pointed out that the nebula -shows a spiral structure, and that lines of stars seem to follow the trend of.the spiral streams, Mr. Frank McClean read a paper on Parallel Photographs of Spectra of the Sun, of Iron, and of Iridium from H to near D. Mr. McClean pre- sented to the Society a photograph of the solar spectrum on the scale of Angstrom's charts of the normal solar spectrum. A photograph of the iron spectrum is shown on one side of this, and a photo- graph of the spectrum of iridium obtained by the electric spark on the other. The coincidences of the iron lines and iridium lines with solar lines is beauti- fully shown, and the E line is double. The scale of these piiotographs is bigger than any photograpiis of metallic spectra which have previously been pub- lished. The Astronomer Royal read a paper on the results of measures of sun-spots, which was accompanied by a diagram showing how sun-spots are distributed in latitude. Mr. Common read a paper on the white spot on the ring of Saturn, observed by Dr. Tenby, which has been easily seen during the last few weeks. Mr. Common considers that the white spot is an optical Rising, Southing, and Setting of the Principal Planets in July. Rises. Souths. Sets. D. h. m. h. m. h. m. 2 3 6m 10 53M 6 40A 9 2 43M 10 37M 6 31A Mercury 5 . 16 2 34M ID 39M 6 44A 23 2 48 M ID 58M 7 8a 30 3 25M II 29M 7 33A 2 I 26M 8 53M 4 20A 9 I I5M 8 51M 4 27A Venus $ . . 16 I 7M 8 51M 4 35A 23 I 2M 8 53M 4 44A 30 I IM 8 57M 4 53A 2 3 24M II 46M 8 8a 9 3 19M II 39M 7 59A Mars cf 16 3 15M II 31M 7 47A 23 3 "M II 24M 7 37A 30 3 7M II 15M 7 23A 2 7 31A II 25A 3 24M 9 7 OA 10 54A 2 53M Jupiter X. . 16 6 29A 10 23A 2 22M 23 5 59A 9 53A I 5IM ^ 30 5 29A 9 23A I 2IM 2 7 I DM 2 41A 10 I2A 9 6 47M 2 17A 9 47A Saturn I?. . 16 6 24M I 53A 9 22A 23 6 IM I 28A 8 55A 30 5 39M I 4A 8 29A illusion, being an effect of contrast with the broad shadow of the ball of the planet on the ring. July 1st : The earth will beat the greatest distance from the sun, 9 hours aft. July 12 : Partial eclipse of the moon, partly visible at Greenwich. The first contact will take place with the shadow at 7 hrs. 43 min., aft. Middle of the eclipse 8 hrs. 54 min. aft., and last contact with shadow at 10 hrs. 5 min. aft. The moon rises at Greenwich 40 min. before the middle of the eclipse, and about half the moon's surface will be eclipsed. There will be no occultations of interest in July. Mercury will be a morning star. Venus will be a morning star. Mars will be a morning star. Saturn will be an evening star, and will be in Leo near Regulus. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLOURS OF FLOWERS THROUGH INSECT- SELECTION. MR. • EDWARD H. ROBERTSON'S paper with the above title in the current number of Science-Gossip seems to call for a few remarks. In the first place, I am surprised to see the old argument against the insect-selection theory (used by Mr. Bulman in October, 1887) again appearing : namely, the argument from the existence of bright HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i6i colours in other parts of the vegetable kingdom. It is difficult to see what bearing these facts are supjjosed to have upon the insect-selection theory, other than the light they may throw on the chemical origination of the colours of flowers, since tliese are in many cases produced by the same or allied pigments. Most of the colours mentioned by ^Ir. Robertson are caused by products of destructive metabolism, or by products incidental to constructive jihysiological processes : some have themselves a distinct physiological significance — e.g., the colouring pigments of the red and brown Fuci and other algoe, which are assimilative pigments. Now it is out of the question that the colouring pigments of flowers are merely incidental products of physiological pro- cesses, though no doubt they were originally such ; it is clear that they now have a physiological significance of their own. Can there be any reason- able doubt that their function is to attract insects, assuming the benefits of cross-fertilisation ? Further, this explanation cannot apply to any of the other instances of bright colour mentioned. They cannot possibly have any connection with insects. If this be so, and it cannot be otherwise, Mr. Robertson's question : — " By what process of insect- selection have these colours been evolved ? " — needs no answer. Insect-selection, which at least may have something to do with the colours of flowers, has not nor can have the slightest connection with these other colours. To borrow and adapt an illustration used by Mr, Robertson, it would be just as reason- able to object to the insect-selection theorj', on the ground that we cannot explain by it the colours of " Orient gems," as on the ground that we cannot explain by it the other bright colours of the vegetable world ; for, from this point of view, the latter have just as little connection as the former with the colours of flowers. For a somewhat fuller discussion of this point, viz., the essential difference between the colours of flowers on the one hand, and colours produced by pigments, which are mere incidental products of physiological processes, and have no physiological significance of their own, I will refer Mr. Robertson to my last paper, Science-Gossip for Feb. (pp. 25, 26). I am at a loss to understand the meaning, from an €volutionary point of view, of Mr. Robertson's question :— " Can it be argued that the highest foims were created destitu'e of their most attractive features, until fortuitously visited by the wandering bee?" Mr. Robertson talks of "attractive features ; " he must remember that each of the other colours he has mentioned has an explanation, either as caused by a product of metabolism, or as having a physiological significance of its own ; and that their " attractiveness " is an explanation of none of them (except those of fruits and seeds, which are adaptations for dispersal by birds, etc.). On the other hand, if he admit?, as he must, that in their attractiveness lies the physiological significance of the colours of flowers, it must be plain that, from an evolutionary point of view, the colours of flowers could not have been permanently developed before their function was existent ! Surely Mr. Robertson is familiar with the fact that at one time phanerogamous plants did not exist ; that the primitive phanerogams were anemophilous ; and finally that entomophily is only a recent devolopment of the mechanism of cross- fertilisation. And since, as I have said, the colours of flowers could have no function before entomophily became general, it becomes clear that though the hypothesis that "the highest forms were created destitute of their most attractive features " may be a " myth worthy of arm-chair theorists," that the foliar structures surrounding the proper reproductive organs of primitive phanerogams were permanently coloured, or partook in any way of the nature of an entomophilous perianth, is an evolutionary impossibility. I must confess that I do not fully understand the drift of the whole of Mr. Robertson's argument about the relations of long- and short-tongued insects to flowers and to each other, but much of it is clearly based on misconception. Thus, for instance, Mr. Robertson has apparently argued upon the assumption that if certain flowers have benefited by increasing complexity, all flowers remaining primitive ought to have been eliminated in the struggle for existence. He should remember that the function of a flower is to carry on the process of reproduction, and that there are many different ways of perfecting the discharge of this function. Thus, Miiller : — "The dependence of entomophilous flowers on guests so infinitely various in habits, tastes, and numbers, in their food and in the means of obtaining it, must have rendered possible not one but countless paths towards perfection, paths leading not always forwards but sometimes backwards ; and only in such a way could the infinite variety of existing flowers have come into existence." The advantages of primitive open flowers, with honey and pollen unconcealed, lie in the great number of insects of all descriptions attracted (when the flower is large and conspicuous), and thus the strong probability at least of cross- fertilisation being effected. The disadvantages, on the other hand, are great, as large quantities of pollen have to be produced, to make up for that stolen by pollen-eating insects, and to ensure the bodies of the visitors getting well covered with it. Further self- fertilisation is effected by the visitors climbing from the anthers to the stigmas just as often as cross- fertilisation. Now in the case of highly-specialised flowers adapted for long-tongued insects only, there is certainly the chance of the flowers not being visited at all ; but, in most cases, if an insect thrusts its proboscis into two flowers consecutively, cross- fertilisation must take place, which is far from beitig l62 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the case in the primitive open flowers. The advantage to the long-tongued insects in having flowers especially suited to them is clear. I do not see any evidence to justify the assertion that it is more *' trouble " to a bee, for instance, to thrust its jKoboscis into an orchid than into a pear-blossom, and it is certain that the honey is less likely to be gone, and the bee is less likely to be jostled in the former than in the latter case. Thus there is room for berth primitive and highly-specialised flowers in the floral world, for long and short-tongued insects in the insect world. A. G. Tansley. {To be cojiclndcd.) THE GEOLOGISTS' ASSOCIATION. A N enjoyable Whitsuntide excursion was spent by -i^y. the members of the above association amongst the Suffolk Crags, under the directorship of Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., and Dr. J. E. Taylor. On Saturday the party visited Southwold, where special attention was paid to the wasting away of the cliffs at Covehithe. It was noticed that the waste of these cliffs was less than was formerly the case. On Monday the party took train for Felixstow, whence they drove to Bawdsey Ferry. Crossing over, they stopped at Bawdsey Manor, where, thanks to Mr. Cuthbert Quilter's hospitality, refreshments awaited them. Thence to Bawdsey Cliff, which was new to the association. It gives the finest section of Red Crag in the country. The Crag is in places overlain by glacial sand or gravel, and underlain by London clay rich in pyritised wood. Mr. Whitaker pointed out that it was not, as was generally supposed, the sea alone which wasted away the cliffs. This was rather due to landslips caused by weathering, through the percolation of water and other agencies, aided and abetted by the slipperiness of the surface of the London clay upon which the crag rested. Then the sea acted as scavenger in clearing away the debris which had fallen. The fossils as a rule were not in good preservation, owing to the beached-up condition of the formation. The most valuable find was a fine specimen of Voluta Lamberti, picked up on the beach. Leaving Bawdsey the party returned to Ipswich, where after dinner they visited the Ipswich Museum, to inspect the valuable crag collection, Dr. Taylor giving an interesting address on the principal specimens. On Tuesday the first place visited was Butley pit, containing a section of Red Crag noted for the occurrence of land and fresh-water shells. A fine specimen of Helix nemoralis was found. Next came the Chillesford stackyard pit, where the Chilles- ford Crag and Clay overlie the Red Crag. Another pit showed a good section of Chillesford Clay, containing many Arctic forms of shells embedded in the position in which they lived. These, however, were so brittle that it was almost impossible to get good specimens. The next two pits visited contained Coralline Crag ; in one of them this was overlain by the Red Crag, which was of a white colour whilst the Coralline was of a deep red, thus reversing the order of things. Then the party visited the famous pit of Coralline Crag in Sudbourn Park. Here many fine specimens both of mollusca and polyzoa were found. The visits to the various pits were made doubly interesting by the short addresses of the two directors. At about half-past three the party lunched in the fine old keep of Orford Castle, and afterwards drove back to Ipswich, and thence by rail to London. SCIENCE-GOSSIP. We have received the Annual Report of the York- shire Philosophical Society for 1888, which besides- the lists of members, catalogue of donations to the museum and library, &c., contains the following papers : "On the Occurrence of Ananchytes Ovaius in the Margate Chalk," "On Terebrahila bisinuata from the London Clay of Hampshire," "On Oolitic Brachiopoda new to Yorkshire," all by Mr. J. F. Walker ; " On the Spinose RynchonellcB found in England," by S. S. Buckman and J. F. Walker ; " On a Head of Hybodus Delabechci, associated with Dorsal Fin-Spines, from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire," by A. Smith Woodward. Mr. W. a. Smith sends us his " Report as to the Best System for the Maintenance of Main Roads in the County of Hereford. " This report should be read by all interested in the subject of road-making, etc. W. Wesley's Catalogue of Works on Geology and Mineralogy contains a large assortment of books at very moderate prices. Mr. W. p. Collins' Catalogue of Books relating to Cryptogamic Botany, etc., contains prices of all the best works on the subject. A Field Club has been formed for Wincanton and neighbourhood. The following subjects will engage the attention of the club : — Archeology (including Architecture) ; Earthworks, Local History, etc. ; Natural History, including Geology, Botany, Ento- mology, Zoology, etc. ; and other subjects connected with science and art. The Rha^tics of Leicestershire is the title of an interesting paper by H. E. Quilter. The same cover includes Notes by A. Smith Woodward "On Some Remains of Fossil Fishes from the Rhcetic Beds of the Spinney Hills, Leicestershire," and " On a Species of Pholidophorus from the Rhittic Paper Shales of Wigston." No. 31 of " British Dogs," by Hugh Dalziel, the well-known authority on all matters connected with our canine friends, is to hand. The work when HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OS SIP, 163 completed, which will evidently be before long, will be the best book on the subject fur ordinary readers. Nos. xi. to xiv. of Mr. Howard Saunders' "Illus- trated Manual of British Birds" is to hand. The illustrations are up to their well-earned mark, and the descriptions arc comprehensively and lucidly written. Miss Jelly intends to publish, as soon as a sufficient number of subscribers has been obtained, a catalogue of the species of recent polyzoa. We advise intending subscribers to enter their names as soon as possible, as Miss Jelly intends to print only a limited number of copies. It is proposed to form a Museum Association for the intercommunication and co-operation of the various museums throughout the country. The advantages of such an association are manifest, and we hope soon to see it an accomplished fact. A meeting for the consideration of the subject took place at York on June 20th. Mr. James Thomson sends us his paper " On the Detection of Mural Pores in the Genus Alveo- lites." It is an answer to a paper of Professor A. H. Nicholson's in the " Geological Magazine " for March, 1888, and is full of interesting matter illustrated by woodcuts. A VERY important " Bulletin " has just been published by the United States Government, as one of the memoirs of its geological survey, entitled the "Nature and Origin of Deposits of Phosphate of Lime." It is one of the best and most exhaustive essays of its kind we have ever studied, running to one hundred and forty-three imperial octavo pages of letterpress. The author is Mr. R. A. F. Penrose; but the work has a very able preface by Professor Shaler. Mr. Penrose discusses the modes of oc- currence of the Apatites of Canada, Norway, and Spain ; the Nodular phosphates of North and South Carolina, Alabama, Florida, North Wales, and England ; the phosphate beds of the Cretaceous upper and lower greensands ; and of the Tertiary phosphate beds. There is also a very interesting chapter on the " History of the Rock Phosphates of England." Next follow others on the Phosphates of Belgium, Northern and Central France, and Russia ; on the Phosphatic Limestones of Kentucky ; on Guano Deposits, Cave and Lacustrine Deposits, &c. More- over, there is appended an exhaustive bibliography of all works treating on this important subject. Mr. H. Lamb has just brought out a capital "Flora of Maidstone." The catalogue is a very exhaustive one. The nomenclature is according to the eighth edition of the London Catalogue. It may be had of Mr. W. S. Vivish, 2S King Street, Maid- stone. Price \s. MICROSCOPY. Scales on Red Currants.— My attention has been called to a paragraph in August SciENCE-Gossir, 188S, by Sidney Tindall, on the subject of the curious scales found inside red currants. As long ago as 1874 I sent some of these currants, with two mounted slides dry and in C. balsam, to the Editor of SciENCE-Gossii'. Mr. Groathin, of Cambridge, thought that silica must enter into their structure ; they polarize beautifully in C. balsam, and in the dry state the colours are softer. I find them nearer the crown, forming a cover to the seeds; they are rounded, not flat and split when pressed ; it is in very dry seasons they mosU/ abound, though last year I found a few. — Louisa S. Saunders. Microscopic Life in Hailstones. — We take the following letter by Mr. I. C. Thompson, of the Liver- pool Microscopical Society, from the " Liverpool Daily Post " for June 4th : — The violent hailstorm of this afternoon, and the very unusual dimensions of the hailstones, afforded an excellent opportunity of making observation thereon. Happening to have two microscopes at work at the time, I collected a number of the hailstones as they fell through my open study window, putting them at once into clean watch- glasses placed under the microscopes. Several observations have been recorded during the last few years upon the substances, organic and inorganic, found in hailstones. Amongst the organic bodies have been noticed amoeba;, rotifers, bacilli, and particles of vegetable matter. Various inorganic substances have also been detected, but I am not aware that their nature has been accurately deter- mined. The hailstones accompanying to-day's storm were of remarkable form and structure, some being round and thick with flat surfaces, and composed of a number of concentric layers, both transparent and opaque. Others were large, jagged, and angular, while some resembled broken pieces of ice. As they dissolved in the conical-shaped watch-glasses, a deposit fell to the centre, which a rough microscopical exami- nation showed to be composed of a dark-coloured amorphous inorganic substance, and minute stone particles. Interspersed with them I noticed small pieces of vegetable tissue, having the appearance of parts of cryptogamic spore-cases, and amongst them were numbers of very minute oblong bead-like bodies about one-fifty-fifth of an inch in length, each having a dark patch at the apices. These small bodies I at once mounted in a clear glycerine medium, and sub- jected them to a further high-poised microscopical examination. Under a one-eighth inch objective they were found to have a rough, knobby surface, the dark ends being curled up extensions and were similar in character to the forms known as belonging to the spores of some of the lower cryptogamia, especially the lichens, to which they evidently belong, although. 164 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. after careful search, I am unable to refer them to any known British species. So here we find microscopic- ally small spores floating at a great elevation in our atmosphere, probably forming the nuclei around which the hailstones formed themselves. Their pre- sence here is very interesting and instructive, and throws considerable light upon the manner in which floating particles, whether minute animals, poisonous bacteria or bacilli, or vegetable organisms, may find their way amongst us, and settle wherever they happen to secure a congenial nidus or resting-place, or are distributed over new pastures. — Yours, &c., Isaac C. Tliompson. ZOOLOGY. A Rotifer? — I visited Burdwan on Saturday last, and took my box of empty bottles with me. Some successful dips were made in the tanks at the Dilk- hoosha (Heart'd Delight) Gardens, belonging to the Maharajah. Amongst other beasties secured was an organism, of which I send you a drawing. It Fig. iiJ. had no ciliary disk, and not much of a "gizzard" {a in the drawing), but its viscera, both in colour, arrangement, &c., were notably those of a rotifer. It possessed two strong hooked processes, and, at the base of these, two clear organs which looked like eyes. Its general "get-up" was that of one of the Rotatoria, and but for its bearing an ovum I should have concluded it was probably a male rotifer. There were, however, two specimens witli ova. I did not detect a mouth, but this may have been due to my not looking for it carefully. The "gizzard" was not in action, and its parts were ill-defined. I think there is no doubt that these curiosities were rotifers, but to what class should they be referred ? — IV. y. Simmons, Calcutta. Shells FiiOM North London DisTRicTs.--The following records may interest conchologists resident in the north or north-western portion of the metro- polis. Taking Ilampstead Heath, Paliidina vivipara and its unicolorous variety, vars. of Limnaa percgra and auriciilaria, L. stagiialis, F/anarbis conwiis, P. alines, P. spirorliis, Sphccriiiin conieum, and Anodonta analhia are plentiful in the "bathing" and adjacent pond ; LiiiuKca tnuuatiila, L. stagiialis, L. pcregra, Paliidina vivipara, Spharitim conuiim, S. lacitstrc. Bithynia tciitacttlata, and Planorhis alhus exist in the "Red Arches" pond; Ifyalina cellaria is to be found on the heath ; Paliidina vivipara, Sphccrium corncmn, Planorbis albus and spirorbis, with Limiura percgra, are present in the " Leg of Mutton " pond ; while near this last-named pond, and in a field on the right of Piatt's Lane, is a pond wherein may be found Limtiixa stagnalis, L. pcregra, and Spharium corneitm with its variety brunneo-fasciata. In the "Moat" at Finchley live L. stagnalis, L. peregra, Physa fontinalis, Planorbis spirorbis, P. iimbilicatus, Bithynia ientaculata, and Sphccrinin corneum ; and near to the "Moat," in small ponds in a field through which the footpath to Hendon runs, is to be found Limncca stagnalis, with, comparatively speak- ing, a fairly abundant number of subscalariform monstrosities of that species. In a small pond near the footpath leading from the " Spaniards " at Hamp- stead to Hendon, exist Limnaa truncatula, L. palus- tris, and L. peregra in tolerable plenty. In some private fish-ponds near the Brent, at Hendon, Ano- donta cygnca is very plentiful, some of the specimens being of large size. In the river Lea at Tottenham are to be found many specimens, of which an account is to be found in my paper, " A Day's Shell-Col- lecting," which was published in Science-Gossip last year. On the way across the fields from Hamp- stead to Hendon is a bank whereon live many specimens oi Helix Cantiana, with its white variety. Helix riifesccns, IP. ncmoralis, H. hortensis, and Umax Levis are to be found in Highgate Woods ; while near the bank where Helix Cantiana is to be found, but nearer Hendon, is another nettle-covered bank which contains very many varieties of Helix ncmoralis and //. hortensis. Making use of the some- what objectionable terms used by conchologists in recording colour variations, I have found here the following varieties of these two species : — Helix ncmoralis, var. libel lit la, 00300, ooooo, 00345, 1 2345 ; var. carnca, 12345 ; Helix hortensis, var. In tea, ooooc, 12345, (123)45, 123(45), 1(23)45. (I23)(45); var. pallida, 12345, (12)345, ,(23)45, (I23)(45), CO345, 1(23)45— y. li'^- IVilliams. Parasites of the White Ant. — Errata. — Page 61, in the first line of the descriptive note to the drawings, for " Figs. 46 to 54," read " Figs. 46 and 53 ;" same line, for " Figs. 49 and 50," read "Figs. 47 and 48." Second line of descriptive note, for " Fig. 49," read " Fig. 47," and fur " Fig. 50 " read " Fig. 48." Page 62, eleventh line from bottom, for " (Figs. 49 and 50) " read " (Figs. 47 and 48 ) " ; eighth line from bottom, for " 54 " read " 53 " ; fifth line from bottom, for " worked down," read " looked down." Page 76, ninth and eighth lines from bottom should " run on," without being broken into separate paragraphs; and should be read "eight hundretl dianr.cters (F)." — The above errata have occurred through the writer's inability to see the proof. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 1^5 BOTANY. Comparative Rarity of the Periwinkle {Viiica fiiiiior). — In Hooker's "Student's Flora of the British Isles," this plant is not mentioned as being either rare or local, yet it would seem that such was the case in some districts, at any rate. The flora of the Tunbridge Wells neighbourhood, a dis- trict with which I am well acquainted, is considered both rich, and, I believe, representative, yet I only know of three localities there for V. minor: (i), on a bank in a footpath off the road between Rusthall and Southborough ; (2), on the roadside beyond the church at Eridge Green, Sussex ; (3), near Pembury, Kent, on the banks skirting the road from " Blue- boys," Pembury to Frant Station, Sussex. At the last-named locality it is very plentiful. It would be interesting to know of any places where it is abun- dant without being even local, and what soils suit its growth best. In connection with what has just been said, it is worth noting the interest taken in the rarity of a plant by children and others who only gather (lowers for the pleasure it affords. The first locality I mentioned is known as " Periwinkle Lane," and quite recently, on the occasion of my visiting it, I was forestalled in my search for the flowers by several children, who said, "There were no peri- .vinkles, and it was no use looking for them ! " — Archibald T. Clarke. Forms and Colours of Flowers. — After reading the article on "Red Leaf," and the reflec- tions to which it has given rise, contained in several numbers of Science-Gossip, I cannot avoid thinking it not only possible, but likely that the brilliant colours assumed by petals were evolved previously to the operations of winged insects upon them. My reasons for this opinion are, that in the growth of leaves there is a progress from the cotyledons through the primordial and cauline leaves to the bracts, all of which are produced before winged insects take notice •of them, unless it be to lay eggs on their surface from which live caterpillars may be hatched to feed upon them. Nevertheless, red leaves appear in autumn when also other colours may and do come out on plants previously green, and with no propensity to flower, as in the variegated kale, which I have raised myself from seeds of Portugal cabbage. Plants of this race, if white or purple in their infancy, com- inonly die young, I suppose from inability on the part of their discoloured leaves to perform the func- tions of nutrition. If green when young, they may L'row to accumulate a store of nutriment whereon to live till they become, as my neighbours tell me, too pretty to eat ; then they either run to flower or assume a snowy whiteness till they fade away and die. Why may not such a process have been carried on in the evolution of the hly ? If it were, one can understand the theory of Grant Allen that wheat and other grasses are florally degraded lilies. If other- wise, I cannot understand how lilies could have existed at all before they were degraded into grasses, for I suppose that grasses may have covered the earth when all its flowers that were not self-fertilised were anemophilous, and insects had not yet learned to fly. Most liliaceous plants have regular though highly-coloured flowers. If they were formed, or if their colours were evolved or even stereotyped and fixed by insect agency, how came they to retain their symmetry ? Plowers whose forms had not become already fixed became irregular after insects had come to play their pranks upon them. This took place independently of their colour. Blue and yellow crocuses are equally regular in form. Species and varieties of gladiolus are all irregular, Init neither the ministration of insects nor the art of the gardener has made them blue. Blue and yellow lupines are alike irregular ; insects having modified their shapes alike, but left their colours different. Other instances might easily be quoted, but the above may serve at present as enough to make it probable that flowers owe their shapes to one set of causes and their colours to another. — John Gibbs, Cheltnsford. The Bee and the Willow. —With reference to Mr. Bulman's paper on this subject in Science- Gossip for last month, some recent observations of my own seem to me to support his views as to the fertilisation of the willow ; in examining some catkins last spring, I was led to the conclusion that the fine silky hairs of the bracts (the chief characteristic of the little-geese of school-days) play an important part in the intricate process of fertilisation. These downy bracts retain the pollen until carried oft" and conveyed by a gust of wind to pistiliferous plants. If the anthers were to shed their pollen on a still and quiet day it would be prevented from falling direct to the ground, and, being lost by these silky hairs, such a temporal retention of the pollen may prove to be advantageous, to protandrous plants especially. However, whether the willow be anemo- or entomo- philous, the silky down of the bracts appear to be an admirable contrivance to ensure fertilisation. — G. Rccs, Aberystwyth. GEOLOGY, &c. Origin of Movements in the Earth's Crust. — A paper on this interesting subject has just been read before the Geological Society by James R. Kilroe. The author thinks that a very important factor has been omitted from the usual explanation offered in accounting for the vast movements which have obtained in the earth's crust. From a some- what conflicting mass of figures he concludes that about twenty miles would remain to represent the amount of radial contraction due to cooling during the period from Archcean to recent times, corre- i66 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. spending to a circumferential contraction of one hundred and twenty miles. This will have to be distributed over widely separate periods, at each of which there is abundant evidence of lateral com- pression. He considers that this shrinkage alone will not account for all the plication or distortion of strata which constitute so important a factor in mountain-making, and he is disposed to supplement it in the way to which allusion has already been made by Mr. Wynne, viz. by considering the effects of the attenuation of strata under superincumbent pressure from deposition in subsiding areas, which involves the thickening, puckering, reduplication, and piling up of strata in regions where pressure has been lessened. It should be noted that, until dis- turbance of " cosmical equilibrium" takes place, mere pressure does not produce metamorphism. The extent of these lateral movements is described, and it is asserted that the theories hitherto adopted to account for plication, &c., are inadequate. The origin of the horizontal movements is further dis- cussed on the hypothesis that solids can flow after the manner of liquids, when they are subjected to sufficient pressure. He considers that the displace- ment in N.W. Scotland may have been initiated by the force due to contraction and accumulating in the crust throughout the periods marked by the deposition of Torridon sandstone and Silurian strata, the ele- ments of movement finding an exit at the ancient Silurian surface. In this case the pile of Silurian strata formerly covering the region now occupied by the North Sea and part of the Atlantic forced the lowest strata to move laterally, the protuberances of the underlying pre-Silurian rocks being also involved in the shearing process. Similar results in other mountain areas. The strata compressed have been greatly attenuated, and extended in proportion ; in this way we may account for the piling up of strata by contortion in certain regions. The connection of this interpretation with Mallet's theory of volcanoes is also indicated, and the author concludes by applying these views to other branches of terrestrial physics. NOTES AND QUERIES. Weather Cycles. — The computation by cycles or circles is at once the most natural and familiar of methods, but, as regards mensuration, certainly the most abstruse ; hence Solomon piously advocates it, Euclid fails to attain unto it, and our modern alge- braists reach it only by methods of approximation. He who would again wave the sigil and starry wand that invoked earthward that most delightful of en- tities, the wisdom of the universe, let him go and moralize over the concentric circles that strike the gaze on the mist-swept rocks and tombstones of our Celtic lands, which stamp the idea of time in the conventional rings and rays of the tree-stump ; let him ponder how the years of forgotten chieftains were chequered with joy and sorrow, and how it is the darkest hour that precedes the dawn ; and let him there and then awake to an impression that the stream of time is full of eddies, and that his own days and years are spinning on in circles. Hardly a trio of centuries has gone since there existed in this country a much-abused faith in climatical years, and a belief in the luck and ill-luck of the sevens and the nines ; and now the lamp of Science aids us to seek the burden of the years in those eleven-year periods in which the sun runs thmugh its appointed cycles of spots, and the reason of our weeks in the proverbial changes of weather. In dealing with a venerable idea which is public property, I do not desire to grapple with those who find a reason to suppose that the weather is dependent upon the moon or the planets in their courses, though for myself I believe it to be coincident with the sun spots in their fluctua- tions and movement ; and though I further find a more decided proof in statistics that leads me to con- clude that there originates a cyclonic disturbance in the earth's atmosphere every twenty-five days on the average, with a tendency in blows to recur every eighth or ninth day ; upon which premises I have even ventured to construct an index. This as it may be, there remains ample reason in the weather cycles to explain that notion of dearth and plenty which, according to the Jubilee or Jewish seven year calcula- tion, recurred every 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, and 50 years, and, according to modern astronomers, may arise every 8, 11, 19, 22, 30, 33, 41, 44, and 52 years ; the voice of joy and mourning. Here is a marked similarity of figures, and, on the best authority, a mere question of an ancient and modern astronomical unit, 7 or II, for the latter of which there is a good reason. As regards the weekly changes, we may conclude that they have been already considered by King Solomon, for he says, " Give a portion to seven and also unto eight, for thou knowest not what evil shall be upon the earth." — A. H, Sxointon. Clutches of Birds' Eggs. — With great satis- faction I observe that attention is being drawn to the modern fashion of collecting birds' eggs in clutches. I have repeatedly heard all the arguments that can be advanced in favour of the new system, and am still unconvinced of any superiority over the old style. The argument advanced by Mr. Nunn in your June number is easily answered. All collectors are aware that frequently one egg of a clutch varies widely from the rest. But supposing the rest are normal, why take them ? Would not a note accom- panying the peculiar variety be enough ? And should your correspondent's surmise prove correct, that the odd egg is usually unfertile, the cabinet could be enriched by a curious specimen without any loss to the bird-life of the country. In passing, I may say I have no belief in this theory of some relation between the colour and fertility of eggs, as I have frequently found nests in which the aberrant egg was fertile, and other cases in which normal eggs were unfertile without displaying any symptom of their addled state externally. The most fallacious argument under which these nest robbers shelter themselves is, that the bird will rear another clutch, and can as easily do that as bring up a part only of their family. Probably your correspondent is un- married, and therefore has not had an opportunity of judging of the difference between rearing a large and small family. But should some " clutch collector " come across the second brood, what then ? Mr. Young has adduced a striking example in two recent numbers of SciENCE-Gossir, where we find it re- ported that a pair of ravens have four times this HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 167 season endeavoured to bring out a brood at Portland. A single clutch of these eggs would have supplied the wants of as many collectors under the old system as the whole four would under the new. Verily they are more rapacious than the ravens themselves. I have ever associated the black cloth of the clergy with a warm and kind heart underneath, but to my dismay I find that the Rev. Canon Raine has intro- duced the new method into the York Museum, where may be seen clutch upon ciutch of the eggs of our more uncommon warblers, etc., some of them, exhibiting no variation, being probably taken for the locality's sake. Surely a single egg would well answer this purpose. This collection, I am told, was last week enriched by the addition of a clutch of seven green woodpecker's eggs from near Helmsley. Why take seven eggs from a rare bird, when there is absolutely no variation amongst them ? To what can you apply the epithet Vandalism, if not to this ? The teal sometimes lays twelve or more eags, varying from pale yellow to pale green. Would it be neces- sary to load one's cabinet with two dozen eggs, to show these two slight variations ? And to prove the range of distribution, would it be necessary to have such clutches from half-a-dozen localities ? Because I hold that all unnecessary destruction of nature's products is Vandalism, I sincerely trust that all true naturalists will humanely endeavour to withstand this perilous innovation, as it is likely to cause the exter- mination of many of our rarest birds. — J. A. IVheldoti, York. NoTHOLCA SCAPiiA.— Your correspondent, Mr. R. P. Grace, refers to "Hudson's N. scapha." I suppose he means the species described by Gosse at p. 127 of vol. ii. of "The Rotifera," and figured by Gosse in plate 29 of the same work. It is true that the species is there described as marine only ; but if Mr. Grace will refer to Science-Gossip for 1887, he will find an article by Mr. Lord on "A Prolific Pond," containing a long list of Rotifera found in a pond near Rawtenstall, among which is Notholca scapha. A itw months later Mr. Lord contributed an illustrated article on the species ; and in 18S8 I stated in Science-Gossip that I had found it inhabiting fresh water near Cheadle, Stafford- shire. I have now found it in four or five places in that neighbourhood. Both Mr. Lord and I sent specimens to Mr. Gosse.— y. IV. Blagg. Nests in strange Places.— On the 27th of April last the men employed on Messrs. Stratton, ■Gentry and Co.'s Coal Wharf at Clapham Junction found on the top of a loaded truck, between two iarge lumps of coal — one of which slightly overlapped the other — a nest containing five eggs of the pied wagtail {Motacilla alba) ; while on the 3rd of May, in another loaded truck but at the bottom of the coals, they found a starling's {.Stenius vulgaris) nest rather roughly built with straw, etc., and containing two eggs. Curiously enough in the latter instance the birds had begun to build at one end of the bottom of the truck, but evidently finding their situation rather precarious, they abandoned the half- built nest and constructed another at the opposite end, towards one side where the coals were more firmly stacked, and here it was traced by the men, from the exuviae around the top of the passage con- necting the nest with the surface of the loaded truck. Both trucks came from the neighbourhood of Burton- on-Trent, and though there but a comparatively short time, had evidently been left